Empirical guide to a safe thoracic paravertebral block based on dimensions of paravertebral space when ultrasound visualization is challenging.

Although ultrasound (US) guidance is the mainstay technique for performing thoracic paravertebral blocks, situations arise when US imaging is limited due to subcutaneous emphysema or extremely deep structures. A detailed understanding of the anatomical structures of the paravertebral space can be strategic to safely and accurately perform a landmark-based or US-assisted approach. As such, we aimed to provide an anatomic roadmap to assist physicians. We examined 50 chest CT scans, measuring the distances of the bony structures and soft-tissue surrounding the thoracic paravertebral block at the 2nd/3rd (upper), 5th/6th (middle), and 9th/10th (lower) thoracic vertebral levels. This review of radiology records controlled for individual differences in body mass index, gender, and thoracic level. Midline to the lateral aspect of the transverse process (TP), the anterior-to-posterior distance of TP to pleura, and rib thickness range widely based on gender and thoracic level. The mean thickness of the TP is 0.9±0.1 cm in women and 1.1±0.2 cm in men. The best target for initial needle insertion from the midline (mean length of TP minus 2 SDs) distance would be 2.5 cm (upper thoracic)/2.2 cm (middle thoracic)/1.8 cm (lower thoracic) for females and 2.7 cm (upper)/2.5 cm (middle)/2.0 cm (lower thoracic) for males, with consideration that the lower thoracic region allows for a lower margin of error in the lateral dimension because of shorter TP. There are different dimensions for the key bony landmarks of a thoracic paravertebral block between males and females, which have not been previously described. These differences warrant adjustment of landmark-based or US-assisted approach to thoracic paravertebral space block for male and female patients.

Standardizing nomenclature in regional anesthesia: an ASRA-ESRA Delphi consensus study of upper and lower limb nerve blocks.

BACKGROUND: Inconsistent nomenclature and anatomical descriptions of regional anesthetic techniques hinder scientific communication and engender confusion; this in turn has implications for research, education and clinical implementation of regional anesthesia. Having produced standardized nomenclature for abdominal wall, paraspinal and chest wall regional anesthetic techniques, we aimed to similarly do so for upper and lower limb peripheral nerve blocks. METHODS: We performed a three-round Delphi international consensus study to generate standardized names and anatomical descriptions of upper and lower limb regional anesthetic techniques. A long list of names and anatomical description of blocks of upper and lower extremities was produced by the members of the steering committee. Subsequently, two rounds of anonymized voting and commenting were followed by a third virtual round table to secure consensus for items that remained outstanding after the first and second rounds. As with previous methodology, strong consensus was defined as ≥75% agreement and weak consensus as 50%-74% agreement. RESULTS: A total of 94, 91 and 65 collaborators participated in the first, second and third rounds, respectively. We achieved strong consensus for 38 names and 33 anatomical descriptions, and weak consensus for five anatomical descriptions. We agreed on a template for naming peripheral nerve blocks based on the name of the nerve and the anatomical location of the blockade and identified several areas for future research. CONCLUSIONS: We achieved consensus on nomenclature and anatomical descriptions of regional anesthetic techniques for upper and lower limb nerve blocks, and recommend using this framework in clinical and academic practice. This should improve research, teaching and learning of regional anesthesia to eventually improve patient care.

Incidence of acute compartment syndrome with routine use of regional anesthesia for patients with long bone fractures: a large single-center retrospective review from a level I trauma tertiary academic institution.

INTRODUCTION: Traditionally, using peripheral nerve blocks (PNBs) in patients with long bone fractures has been limited due to concerns that it may interfere with the timely diagnosis of acute compartment syndrome (ACS). However, our large academic institution and level I trauma center have been using regional anesthesia routinely for pain management of patients with long bone fractures for more than a decade, with strict adherence to a comprehensive management protocol. The aim of this retrospective review is to present our experience with this practice. METHODS: Following Institutional Review Board approval, we performed a retrospective chart review of patients with long bone fractures and ACS over a 10-year period (2008-2018). RESULTS: 26 537 patients were included in the review. Approximately 20% of these patients required surgery, and 91.5% of surgically treated patients received regional anesthesia. The incidence of ACS in our cohort was 0.1% or 1.017 per 1000 patients with long bone fractures. CONCLUSION: Current recommendations on using PNBs in patients at risk for ACS have been mainly based on expert opinion and dated case reports. Due to the nature of the condition, prospective data are lacking. Our large observational dataset evaluated the risk of missing or delaying ACS diagnosis when PNBs were offered for trauma patients and demonstrated a relatively low incidence of ACS despite the routine use of PNBs under strictly protocolized conditions when patients were managed by a dedicated multidisciplinary care team.

Comparing Spinal Chloroprocaine to Hyperbaric and Isobaric Bupivacaine for Total Hip and Knee Arthroplasties: A Retrospective Study.

INTRODUCTION: Spinal anesthesia is commonly used for total knee and hip arthroplasties (TKA/THA). The rising popularity of ambulatory TKA and THAs require anesthetic techniques that provide rapid recovery of motor and sensory function while minimizing side effects like postoperative urinary retention. This single-center retrospective observational study compares the recovery profile of patients undergoing TKA and THA under chloroprocaine spinals compared to hyperbaric and isobaric bupivacaine spinals. METHODS: One hundred and twelve patients undergoing primary TKA and THA under spinal anesthesia at University of Florida Health were identified between September 1, 2019 and February 21, 2020. Their electronic medical records were reviewed. Patients were categorized based on the local anesthetic used in the spinal. Various demographic, intraoperative, and postoperative data were compiled and compared, including duration of surgery, time to physical therapy, time to post-anesthesia care unit (PACU) discharge, and time to spontaneous micturition. RESULTS: Time to spontaneous micturition and PACU discharge were significantly lower in the chloroprocaine spinal group compared to the hyperbaric bupivacaine group by 193 minutes and 42 minutes, respectively. Fewer patients receiving chloroprocaine spinals had their first physical therapy session limited by residual motor weakness compared to those in both bupivacaine groups. Additionally, mean duration of surgery was shorter in the chloroprocaine group compared to both bupivacaine groups (89 minutes compared to 111 minutes). Time to physical therapy completion was not different. All groups had <10% conversion to general anesthesia. CONCLUSION: Chloroprocaine spinals can be feasible options for TKAs and THAs with improved postoperative recovery profiles compared to bupivacaine spinals.

Pro-Con Debate: Peripheral Nerve Blockade Should Be Provided Routinely in Extremity Trauma, Including in Patients At Risk for Acute Compartment Syndrome.

In this Pro-Con commentary article, we discuss the controversial debate of whether to provide peripheral nerve blockade (PNB) to patients at risk of acute extremity compartment syndrome (ACS). Traditionally, most practitioners adopt the conservative approach and withhold regional anesthetics for fear of masking an ACS (Con). Recent case reports and new scientific theory, however, demonstrate that modified PNB can be safe and advantageous in these patients (Pro). This article elucidates the arguments based on a better understanding of relevant pathophysiology, neural pathways, personnel and institutional limitations, and PNB adaptations in these patients.

Role of an Intercostobrachial Nerve Block in Alleviating Tourniquet Pain: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

Introduction Tourniquet pain may have cutaneous and ischemic components. It is questionable whether blockade of a sensory nerve will help reduce ischemic pain. In addition, complete anesthesia of the axilla in the intercostobrachial nerve (ICBN) distribution is challenging to execute, and ICBN blockade has an inherently higher failure rate because of its variable anatomic location and source of innervation. We sought to determine the utility of an ICBN block for the prevention of tourniquet pain. Methods We conducted a single-center randomized controlled trial at a major academic medical center involving patients scheduled to undergo distal upper extremity surgery under ultrasound-guided supraclavicular brachial plexus block. Forty patients were randomized to receive an additional ICBN block or no ICBN block, with 22 allocated to the intervention and 18 to control. We collected data on the incidence of tourniquet pain and systemic anesthetic requirements. Results Initial contingency analysis examining the relationship between ICBN block placement and the development of pain using the two-tailed Fisher exact test failed to show that the presence or absence of ICBN block was associated with the development of tourniquet pain. χ2 analysis failed to show that tourniquet time was significantly related to the development of tourniquet pain. Conclusions The overall incidence of tourniquet pain in the setting of a dense supraclavicular brachial plexus block for surgical anesthesia was low even without an ICBN block and even with tourniquet times greater than 90 min. Tourniquet pain was easily managed with small amounts of systemic analgesics.

Efficacy of Phrenic Nerve Catheter in Ipsilateral Shoulder Pain After Thoracic Surgery.

The mechanism of ipsilateral shoulder pain (ISP) after thoracic surgery remains unexplained definitively in the literature. Regional techniques targeting specific nerves more precisely will provide practitioners with a better understanding of the pain source. We report the case of a 51-year-old woman who underwent robotic-assisted plication of the right hemidiaphragm. ISP was adequately managed using a low-volume infusion through a continuous phrenic nerve block in addition to a thoracic epidural for her chest pain. ISP after thoracic surgery likely originates from diaphragm manipulation. Phrenic nerve blockade is a successful strategy that does not worsen subjective dyspnea in this setting.

The insiders' experiences with continuous transversus abdominis plane blocks for analgesia after cesarean delivery.

OBJECTIVE: Transversus abdominis plane blocks have been recently utilized for analgesia after cesarean delivery. However, little data concerning continuous transversus abdominis plane blocks has been reported in the existing literature. Available studies mainly examine the efficacy of single-injection blocks, and only one small case series has been published regarding continuous blocks for analgesia after cesarean delivery. First-hand experiences and observations of three acute pain medicine specialists who received a continuous transversus abdominis plane block for analgesia after cesarean delivery are presented. SETTINGS AND PATIENTS: Three physicians specialized in acute and perioperative pain medicine personally underwent continuous transversus abdominis plane block placements for analgesia after cesarean delivery via a disposable infusion pump at the same teaching hospital. RESULTS: In a very motivated, well-supported, and informed patient after uncomplicated cesarean delivery, the use of continuous transversus abdominis plane blocks for analgesia offers the significant advantages of early functional recovery and excellent prolonged analgesia. CONCLUSION: The patients experienced postoperative continuous transversus abdominis plane blocks that seem to be of value in limiting opiate use and improving analgesia with daily activities in the acute postoperative phase after cesarean delivery.

Neurogenic thoracic outlet syndrome: A case report and review of the literature.

Neurogenic thoracic outlet syndrome (NTOS) is an oft-overlooked and obscure cause of shoulder pain, which regularly presents to the office of shoulder surgeons and pain specialist. With this paper we present an otherwise healthy young female patient with typical NTOS. She first received repeated conservative treatments with 60 units of botulinium toxin injected into the anterior scalene muscle at three-month intervals, which providing excellent results of symptom-free periods. Later a trans-axillary first rib resection provided semi-permanent relief. The patient was followed for 10 years after which time the symptoms reappeared. We review the literature and elaborate on the anatomy, sonoanatomy, etiology and characteristics, symptoms, diagnostic criteria and treatment modalities of NTOS. Patients with NTOS often get operated upon - even if just a diagnostic arthroscopy, and an interscalene or other brachial plexus block may be performed. This might put the patient in jeopardy of permanent nerve injury, and the purpose of this review is to minimize or prevent this.

Ultrasound: Basic understanding and learning the language.

Ultrasound (US) use has rapidly entered the field of acute pain medicine and regional anesthesia and interventional pain medicine over the last decade, and it may even become the standard of practice. The advantages of US guidance over conventional techniques include the ability to both view the targeted structure and visualize, in real time, the distribution of the injected medication, and the capacity to control its distribution by readjusting the needle position, if needed. US guidance should plausibly improve the success rate of the procedures, their safety and speed. This article provides basic information on musculoskeletal US techniques, with an emphasis on the principles and practical aspects. We stress that for the best use of US, one should venture beyond the "pattern recognition" mode to the more advanced systematic approach and use US as a tool to visualize structures beyond the skin (sonoanatomy mode). We discuss the sonographic appearance of different tissues, introduce the reader to commonly used US-related terminology, cover basic machine "knobology" and fundamentals of US probe selection and manipulation. At the end, we discuss US-guided needle advancement. We only briefly touch on topics dealing with physics, artifacts, or sonopathology, which are available elsewhere in the medical literature.

Applied sonoanatomy of the posterior triangle of the neck.

The posterior triangle of the neck is an area of the body frequently visited by regional anesthesiologists, acute and chronic pain physicians, surgeons of all disciplines, and diagnosticians. It houses the entire brachial plexus from the roots to the divisions, the scalene muscles, the cervical sympathetic ganglions, the major blood vessels to and from the brain, the neuroforamina and various other structures of more or less importance to these physicians. Ultrasound (US) offers a handy visual tool for these structures to be viewed in real time and, therefore, its popularity and the need to understand it. We will discuss pertinent clinical anatomy of the neck and offer a basic visual explanation of the often-difficult two-dimensional (2-D) images seen with US.