Does Involving Parents in Soil Sampling Identify Causes of Child Exposure to Lead? A Case Study of Community Engagement in Mining-Impacted Towns in Peru.

Over a million people in Peru may be exposed to lead (Pb) due to past or present mining-related activities; however, neither soil Pb nor blood Pb are routinely monitored throughout the country. Because little is known about Pb contamination in smaller mining-impacted towns, soil Pb was mapped in four such towns with a portable X-ray fluorescence analyzer in 2015. The roadside mapping delineated hotspots of highly contaminated soil (1,000-6,000 mg/kg Pb) in two of the towns. The local health department, provided with a LeadCare II analyzer, then measured blood-Pb levels >5 in 65% and >10 µg/dL in 15% of children (n = 200) up to 6 years of age in these same four communities. There were no clear relations between child blood-Pb levels and Pb levels in soil samples collected inside (n = 50) or outside the home (n = 50). Increased child blood Pb was associated with decreased level of cleanliness of parent clothing (n = 136) and shoes (n = 138), linking a possible behavioral factor for transferring contaminated soil and dust to children. In order to explore individual exposure and variations in soil Pb, 10 parents of children with blood Pb >10 µg/dL and 10 parents of children with blood Pb <5 µg/dL were invited to collect soil samples in areas where their children play and screen it for Pb using a color-based field procedure. Importantly, parents identified a new hotspot of Pb contamination that had been missed by the previous portable X-ray fluorescence soil mapping. The findings highlight the feasibility and value of involving families impacted by environmental contamination to identify and reduce environmental health risk.

Gathering time-series data for evaluating behavior-change campaigns in developing countries: reactivity of diaries and interviews.

Gathering time-series data of behaviors and psychological variables is important to understand, guide, and evaluate behavior-change campaigns and other change processes. However, repeated measurement can affect the phenomena investigated, particularly frequent face-to-face interviews, which are often the only option in developing countries. This article presents three intervention control studies to investigate this issue. Daily diaries in Cuba did not affect behavior or attitudes for persons with intervention but reduced attitudes for persons without intervention. Reactivity of face-to-face interviews in Bolivia was negligible if applied weekly, but strong if applied twice per week. The article concludes with recommendations for gathering time-series data in developing countries.