Liposome engraftment and antigen combination potentiate the immune response towards conserved epitopes of the malaria vaccine candidate MSP2.

Merozoite surface protein 2 (MSP2) is a highly abundant, GPI-anchored surface antigen on merozoites of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. It consists of highly conserved N- and C-terminal domains, and a central polymorphic region that allows all MSP2 alleles to be categorized into the 3D7 or FC27 family. Previously it has been shown that epitope accessibility differs between lipid-bound and lipid-free MSP2, suggesting that lipid interactions modulate the conformation and antigenicity in a way that may better mimic native MSP2 on the merozoite surface. Therefore, we have immunised mice with MSP2 engrafted onto liposomes using a C-terminal tether that mimics the native GPI anchor. To improve the immunogenicity of the formulated antigen, liposomes were supplemented with Pathogen Associated Molecular Pattern molecules, specifically agonists of the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) or TLR2. Induced antibodies were directed mostly towards conserved epitopes, predominantly in the conserved C-terminal region of MSP2. We also found that immunisation with a combination of 3D7 and FC27 MSP2 enhanced antibody responses to conserved epitopes, and that the overall responses of mice immunised with MSP2-engrafted liposomes were comparable in magnitude to those of mice immunised with MSP2 formulated in Montanide ISA720. The antibodies elicited in mice by immunising with MSP2-engrafted liposomes recognised the native form of parasite MSP2 on western blots and were found to be cross-reactive with isolated 3D7 and FC27 merozoites when investigated by ELISA. The liposome-tethered MSP2 induced higher titres of complement-fixing antibodies to 3D7 and FC27 MSP2 than did MSP2 formulated in Montanide ISA720. Our results indicate that liposomal formulation represents a viable strategy for eliciting a strong immune response that favours conserved epitopes in MSP2 and thus a strain-transcendent immune response.

BioStructMap: a Python tool for integration of protein structure and sequence-based features.

Summary: A sliding window analysis over a protein or genomic sequence is commonly performed, and we present a Python tool, BioStructMap, that extends this concept to three-dimensional (3D) space, allowing the application of a 3D sliding window analysis over a protein structure. BioStructMap is easily extensible, allowing the user to apply custom functions to spatially aggregated data. BioStructMap also allows mapping of underlying genomic sequences to protein structures, allowing the user to perform genetic-based analysis over spatially linked codons-this has applications when selection pressures arise at the level of protein structure. Availability and implementation: The Python BioStructMap package is available at https://github.com/andrewguy/biostructmap and released under the MIT License. An online server implementing standard functionality is available at https://biostructmap.burnet.edu.au. Supplementary information: Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

Structural patterns of selection and diversity for Plasmodium vivax antigens DBP and AMA1.

BACKGROUND: Plasmodium vivax is a significant contributor to the global malaria burden, and a vaccine targeting vivax malaria is urgently needed. An understanding of the targets of functional immune responses during the course of natural infection will aid in the development of a vaccine. Antibodies play a key role in this process, with responses against particular epitopes leading to immune selection pressure on these epitopes. A number of techniques exist to estimate levels of immune selection pressure on particular epitopes, with a sliding window analysis often used to determine particular regions likely to be under immune pressure. However, such analysis neglects protein three-dimensional structural information. With this in mind, a newly developed tool, BioStructMap, was applied to two key antigens from Plasmodium vivax: PvAMA1 and PvDBP Region II. This tool incorporates structural information into tests of selection pressure. RESULTS: Sequences from a number of populations were analysed, examining spatially-derived nucleotide diversity and Tajima's D over protein structures for PvAMA1 and PvDBP. Structural patterns of nucleotide diversity were similar across all populations examined, with Domain I of PvAMA1 having the highest nucleotide diversity and displaying significant signatures of immune selection pressure (Tajima's D > 0). Nucleotide diversity for PvDBP was highest bordering the dimerization and DARC-binding interface, although there was less evidence of immune selection pressure on PvDBP compared with PvAMA1. This study supports previous work that has identified Domain I as the main target of immune-mediated selection pressure for PvAMA1, and also supports studies that have identified functional epitopes within PvDBP Region II. CONCLUSIONS: The BioStructMap tool was applied to leading vaccine candidates from P. vivax, to examine structural patterns of selection and diversity across a number of geographic populations. There were striking similarities in structural patterns of diversity across multiple populations. Furthermore, whilst regions of high diversity tended to surround conserved binding interfaces, a number of protein regions with very low diversity were also identified, and these may be useful targets for further vaccine development, given previous evidence of functional antibody responses against these regions.

Proteome-wide mapping of immune features onto Plasmodium protein three-dimensional structures.

Humoral immune responses against the malaria parasite are an important component of a protective immune response. Antibodies are often directed towards conformational epitopes, and the native structure of the antigenic region is usually critical for antibody recognition. We examined the structural features of various Plasmodium antigens that may impact on epitope location, by performing a comprehensive analysis of known and modelled structures from P. falciparum. Examining the location of known polymorphisms over all available structures, we observed a strong propensity for polymorphic residues to be exposed on the surface and to occur in particular secondary structure segments such as hydrogen-bonded turns. We also utilised established prediction algorithms for B-cell epitopes and MHC class II binding peptides, examining predicted epitopes in relation to known polymorphic sites within structured regions. Finally, we used the available structures to examine polymorphic hotspots and Tajima's D values using a spatial averaging approach. We identified a region of PfAMA1 involving both domains II and III under a high degree of balancing selection relative to the rest of the protein. In summary, we developed general methods for examining how sequence-based features relate to one another in three-dimensional space and applied these methods to key P. falciparum antigens.

Insights into the Immunological Properties of Intrinsically Disordered Malaria Proteins Using Proteome Scale Predictions.

Malaria remains a significant global health burden. The development of an effective malaria vaccine remains as a major challenge with the potential to significantly reduce morbidity and mortality. While Plasmodium spp. have been shown to contain a large number of intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) or disordered protein regions, the relationship of protein structure to subcellular localisation and adaptive immune responses remains unclear. In this study, we employed several computational prediction algorithms to identify IDPs at the proteome level of six Plasmodium spp. and to investigate the potential impact of protein disorder on adaptive immunity against P. falciparum parasites. IDPs were shown to be particularly enriched within nuclear proteins, apical proteins, exported proteins and proteins localised to the parasitophorous vacuole. Furthermore, several leading vaccine candidates, and proteins with known roles in host-cell invasion, have extensive regions of disorder. Presentation of peptides by MHC molecules plays an important role in adaptive immune responses, and we show that IDP regions are predicted to contain relatively few MHC class I and II binding peptides owing to inherent differences in amino acid composition compared to structured domains. In contrast, linear B-cell epitopes were predicted to be enriched in IDPs. Tandem repeat regions and non-synonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms were found to be strongly associated with regions of disorder. In summary, immune responses against IDPs appear to have characteristics distinct from those against structured protein domains, with increased antibody recognition of linear epitopes but some constraints for MHC presentation and issues of polymorphisms. These findings have major implications for vaccine design, and understanding immunity to malaria.

Acquisition of Functional Antibodies That Block the Binding of Erythrocyte-Binding Antigen 175 and Protection Against Plasmodium falciparum Malaria in Children.

BACKGROUND: The targets and mechanisms of human immunity to malaria are poorly understood, which poses a major barrier to malaria vaccine development. Antibodies play a key role in human immunity and may act by inhibiting receptor-binding functions of key merozoite invasion ligands. Antibodies to the major invasion ligand and vaccine candidate, erythrocyte-binding antigen 175 (EBA-175), have been linked with protection, but how these antibodies function has not been established. METHODS: We developed 2 new assays that quantify the ability of antibodies to inhibit binding of EBA-175 to its erythrocyte receptor, glycophorin A, using either native or recombinant EBA-175. Binding-inhibitory antibodies were evaluated in a longitudinal cohort study of Papua New Guinean children and related to risk of malaria, age, infection status, and markers of parasite exposure. RESULTS: Binding-inhibition assays (BIAs) were reproducible, and the 2 assays had a high level of agreement. Inhibitory antibodies were common among children, acquired in association with markers of increasing parasite exposure, and high in those children with active infection. Inhibitory antibodies correlated with total immunoglobulin G levels to the EBA-175 binding domain (region II). Importantly, binding-inhibitory antibodies were significantly associated with protection from symptomatic malaria when measured using either BIA. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that naturally acquired binding-inhibitory antibodies are an important functional mechanism that contributes to protection against malaria and further supports the potential of EBA-175 as a vaccine candidate. Identifying vaccines and approaches that induce potent binding-inhibitory antibodies may be a valuable strategy in the development of highly efficacious malaria vaccines.

Molecular properties of human IgG subclasses and their implications for designing therapeutic monoclonal antibodies against infectious diseases.

Monoclonal antibodies are being developed as therapeutics to complement drugs and vaccines or to fill the gap where no drugs or vaccines exist. These therapeutic antibodies (ThAb) may be especially important for infectious diseases in which there is antibiotic resistance, toxin-mediated pathogenesis, or for emerging pathogens. The unique structure of antibodies determines the specific nature of the effector function, so when developing ThAb, the desired effector functions need to be considered and integrated into the design and development processes to ensure maximum efficacy and safety. Antibody subclass is a critical consideration, but it is noteworthy that almost all ThAb that are licenced or currently in development utilise an IgG1 backbone. This review outlines the major structural properties that vary across subclasses, how these properties affect functional immunity, and discusses the various approaches used to study subclass responses to infectious diseases. We also review the factors associated with the selection of antibody subclasses when designing ThAb and highlight circumstances where different subclass properties might be beneficial when applied to particular infectious diseases. These approaches are critical to the future design of ThAb and to the study of naturally-acquired and vaccine-induced immunity.