Ephedrae Herba and Cinnamomi Cortex interactions with G glycoprotein inhibit respiratory syncytial virus infectivity.

Although respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a major cause of respiratory tract infection in children, no effective therapies are available. Recently, RSV G, the attachment glycoprotein, has become a major focus in the development of therapeutic strategies against RSV infection. Treatment of RSV-infected cultured cells with maoto, a traditional herbal medicine for acute febrile diseases, significantly reduced the viral RNA and titers. RSV attachment to the cell surface was inhibited both in the presence of maoto and when RSV particles were pre-treated with maoto. We demonstrated that maoto components, Ephedrae Herba (EH) and Cinnamomi Cortex (CC), specifically interacted with the central conserved domain (CCD) of G protein, and also found that this interaction blocked viral attachment to the cellular receptor CX3CR1. Genetic mutation of CX3C motif on the CCD, the epitope for CX3CR1, decreased the binding capacity to EH and CC, suggesting that CX3C motif was the target for EH and CC. Finally, oral administration of maoto for five days to RSV-infected mice significantly reduced the lung viral titers. These experiments clearly showed the anti-RSV activity of EH and CC mixed in maoto. Taken together, this study provides insights for the rational design of therapies against RSV infection.

A Well-Conserved Archaeal B-Family Polymerase Functions as an Extender in Translesion Synthesis.

B-family DNA polymerases (PolBs) of different groups are widespread in Archaea, and different PolBs often coexist in the same organism. Many of these PolB enzymes remain to be investigated. One of the main groups that is poorly characterized is PolB2, whose members occur in many archaea but are predicted to be inactivated forms of DNA polymerase. Here, Sulfolobus islandicus DNA polymerase 2 (Dpo2), a PolB2 enzyme, was expressed in its native host and purified. Characterization of the purified enzyme revealed that the polymerase possesses a robust nucleotide incorporation activity but is devoid of the 3'-5' exonuclease activity. Enzyme kinetics analyses showed that Dpo2 replicates undamaged DNA templates with high fidelity, which is consistent with its inefficient nucleotide insertion activity opposite different DNA lesions. Strikingly, the polymerase is highly efficient in extending mismatches and mispaired primer termini once a nucleotide is placed opposite a damaged site. This extender polymerase represents a novel type of prokaryotic PolB specialized for DNA damage repair in Archaea. IMPORTANCE In this work, we report that Sulfolobus islandicus Dpo2, a B-family DNA polymerase once predicted to be an inactive form, is a bona fide DNA polymerase functioning in translesion synthesis. S. islandicus Dpo2 is a member of a large group of B-family DNA polymerases (PolB2) that are present in many archaea and some bacteria, and they carry variations in well-conserved amino acids in the functional domains responsible for polymerization and proofreading. However, we found that this prokaryotic B-family DNA polymerase not only replicates undamaged DNA with high fidelity but also extends mismatch and DNA lesion-containing substrates with high efficiencies. With these data, we propose this enzyme functions as an extender polymerase, the first prokaryotic enzyme of this type. Our data also suggest this PolB2 enzyme represents a functional counterpart of the eukaryotic DNA polymerase Pol zeta, an enzyme that is devoted to DNA damage repair.

Family D DNA polymerase interacts with GINS to promote CMG-helicase in the archaeal replisome.

Genomic DNA replication requires replisome assembly. We show here the molecular mechanism by which CMG (GAN-MCM-GINS)-like helicase cooperates with the family D DNA polymerase (PolD) in Thermococcus kodakarensis. The archaeal GINS contains two Gins51 subunits, the C-terminal domain of which (Gins51C) interacts with GAN. We discovered that Gins51C also interacts with the N-terminal domain of PolD's DP1 subunit (DP1N) to connect two PolDs in GINS. The two replicases in the replisome should be responsible for leading- and lagging-strand synthesis, respectively. Crystal structure analysis of the DP1N-Gins51C-GAN ternary complex was provided to understand the structural basis of the connection between the helicase and DNA polymerase. Site-directed mutagenesis analysis supported the interaction mode obtained from the crystal structure. Furthermore, the assembly of helicase and replicase identified in this study is also conserved in Eukarya. PolD enhances the parental strand unwinding via stimulation of ATPase activity of the CMG-complex. This is the first evidence of the functional connection between replicase and helicase in Archaea. These results suggest that the direct interaction of PolD with CMG-helicase is critical for synchronizing strand unwinding and nascent strand synthesis and possibly provide a functional machinery for the effective progression of the replication fork.

Metagenomic analysis provides functional insights into seasonal change of a non-cyanobacterial prokaryotic community in temperate coastal waters.

The taxonomic compositions of marine prokaryotic communities are known to follow seasonal cycles, but functional metagenomic insights into this seasonality is still limited. We analyzed a total of 22 metagenomes collected at 11 time points over a 14-month period from two sites in Sendai Bay, Japan to obtain seasonal snapshots of predicted functional profiles of the non-cyanobacterial prokaryotic community. Along with taxonomic composition, functional gene composition varied seasonally and was related to chlorophyll a concentration, water temperature, and salinity. Spring phytoplankton bloom stimulated increased abundances of putative genes that encode enzymes in amino acid metabolism pathways. Several groups of functional genes, including those related to signal transduction and cellular communication, increased in abundance during the mid- to post-bloom period, which seemed to be associated with a particle-attached lifestyle. Alternatively, genes in carbon metabolism pathways were generally more abundant in the low chlorophyll a period than the bloom period. These results indicate that changes in trophic condition associated with seasonal phytoplankton succession altered the community function of prokaryotes. Our findings on seasonal changes of predicted function provide fundamental information for future research on the mechanisms that shape marine microbial communities.

New insights into the diversity and evolution of the archaeal mobilome from three complete genomes of Saccharolobus shibatae.

Saccharolobus (formerly Sulfolobus) shibatae B12, isolated from a hot spring in Beppu, Japan in 1982, is one of the first hyperthermophilic and acidophilic archaeal species to be discovered. It serves as a natural host to the extensively studied spindle-shaped virus SSV1, a prototype of the Fuselloviridae family. Two additional Sa. shibatae strains, BEU9 and S38A, sensitive to viruses of the families Lipothrixviridae and Portogloboviridae, respectively, have been isolated more recently. However, none of the strains has been fully sequenced, limiting their utility for studies on archaeal biology and virus-host interactions. Here, we present the complete genome sequences of all three Sa. shibatae strains and explore the rich diversity of their integrated mobile genetic elements (MGE), including transposable insertion sequences, integrative and conjugative elements, plasmids, and viruses, some of which were also detected in the extrachromosomal form. Analysis of related MGEs in other Sulfolobales species and patterns of CRISPR spacer targeting revealed a complex network of MGE distributions, involving horizontal spread and relatively frequent host switching by MGEs over large phylogenetic distances, involving species of the genera Saccharolobus, Sulfurisphaera and Acidianus. Furthermore, we characterize a remarkable case of a virus-to-plasmid transition, whereby a fusellovirus has lost the genes encoding for the capsid proteins, while retaining the replication module, effectively becoming a plasmid.

Development of a time-series shotgun metagenomics database for monitoring microbial communities at the Pacific coast of Japan.

Although numerous metagenome, amplicon sequencing-based studies have been conducted to date to characterize marine microbial communities, relatively few have employed full metagenome shotgun sequencing to obtain a broader picture of the functional features of these marine microbial communities. Moreover, most of these studies only performed sporadic sampling, which is insufficient to understand an ecosystem comprehensively. In this study, we regularly conducted seawater sampling along the northeastern Pacific coast of Japan between March 2012 and May 2016. We collected 213 seawater samples and prepared size-based fractions to generate 454 subsets of samples for shotgun metagenome sequencing and analysis. We also determined the sequences of 16S rRNA (n = 111) and 18S rRNA (n = 47) gene amplicons from smaller sample subsets. We thereafter developed the Ocean Monitoring Database for time-series metagenomic data ( http://marine-meta.healthscience.sci.waseda.ac.jp/omd/ ), which provides a three-dimensional bird's-eye view of the data. This database includes results of digital DNA chip analysis, a novel method for estimating ocean characteristics such as water temperature from metagenomic data. Furthermore, we developed a novel classification method that includes more information about viruses than that acquired using BLAST. We further report the discovery of a large number of previously overlooked (TAG)n repeat sequences in the genomes of marine microbes. We predict that the availability of this time-series database will lead to major discoveries in marine microbiome research.

DNA polymerase D temporarily connects primase to the CMG-like helicase before interacting with proliferating cell nuclear antigen.

The eukaryotic replisome is comprised of three family-B DNA polymerases (Polα, δ and ϵ). Polα forms a stable complex with primase to synthesize short RNA-DNA primers, which are subsequently elongated by Polδ and Polϵ in concert with proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA). In some species of archaea, family-D DNA polymerase (PolD) is the only DNA polymerase essential for cell viability, raising the question of how it alone conducts the bulk of DNA synthesis. We used a hyperthermophilic archaeon, Thermococcus kodakarensis, to demonstrate that PolD connects primase to the archaeal replisome before interacting with PCNA. Whereas PolD stably connects primase to GINS, a component of CMG helicase, cryo-EM analysis indicated a highly flexible PolD-primase complex. A conserved hydrophobic motif at the C-terminus of the DP2 subunit of PolD, a PIP (PCNA-Interacting Peptide) motif, was critical for the interaction with primase. The dissociation of primase was induced by DNA-dependent binding of PCNA to PolD. Point mutations in the alternative PIP-motif of DP2 abrogated the molecular switching that converts the archaeal replicase from de novo to processive synthesis mode.

Enzymatic Switching Between Archaeal DNA Polymerases Facilitates Abasic Site Bypass.

Abasic sites are among the most abundant DNA lesions encountered by cells. Their replication requires actions of specialized DNA polymerases. Herein, two archaeal specialized DNA polymerases were examined for their capability to perform translesion DNA synthesis (TLS) on the lesion, including Sulfolobuss islandicus Dpo2 of B-family, and Dpo4 of Y-family. We found neither Dpo2 nor Dpo4 is efficient to complete abasic sites bypass alone, but their sequential actions promote lesion bypass. Enzyme kinetics studies further revealed that the Dpo4's activity is significantly inhibited at +1 to +3 site past the lesion, at which Dpo2 efficiently extends the primer termini. Furthermore, their activities are inhibited upon synthesis of 5-6 nt TLS patches. Once handed over to Dpo1, these substrates basically inactivate its exonuclease, enabling the transition from proofreading to polymerization of the replicase. Collectively, by functioning as an "extender" to catalyze further DNA synthesis past the lesion, Dpo2 bridges the activity gap between Dpo4 and Dpo1 in the archaeal TLS process, thus achieving more efficient lesion bypass.

Two conformations of DNA polymerase D-PCNA-DNA, an archaeal replisome complex, revealed by cryo-electron microscopy.

BACKGROUND: DNA polymerase D (PolD) is the representative member of the D family of DNA polymerases. It is an archaea-specific DNA polymerase required for replication and unrelated to other known DNA polymerases. PolD consists of a heterodimer of two subunits, DP1 and DP2, which contain catalytic sites for 3'-5' editing exonuclease and DNA polymerase activities, respectively, with both proteins being mutually required for the full activities of each enzyme. However, the processivity of the replicase holoenzyme has additionally been shown to be enhanced by the clamp molecule proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), making it crucial to elucidate the interaction between PolD and PCNA on a structural level for a full understanding of its functional relevance. We present here the 3D structure of a PolD-PCNA-DNA complex from Thermococcus kodakarensis using single-particle cryo-electron microscopy (EM). RESULTS: Two distinct forms of the PolD-PCNA-DNA complex were identified by 3D classification analysis. Fitting the reported crystal structures of truncated forms of DP1 and DP2 from Pyrococcus abyssi onto our EM map showed the 3D atomic structural model of PolD-PCNA-DNA. In addition to the canonical interaction between PCNA and PolD via PIP (PCNA-interacting protein)-box motif, we found a new contact point consisting of a glutamate residue at position 171 in a ß-hairpin of PCNA, which mediates interactions with DP1 and DP2. The DNA synthesis activity of a mutant PolD with disruption of the E171-mediated PCNA interaction was not stimulated by PCNA in vitro. CONCLUSIONS: Based on our analyses, we propose that glutamate residues at position 171 in each subunit of the PCNA homotrimer ring can function as hooks to lock PolD conformation on PCNA for conversion of its activity. This hook function of the clamp molecule may be conserved in the three domains of life.

Role of RadA and DNA Polymerases in Recombination-Associated DNA Synthesis in Hyperthermophilic Archaea.

Among the three domains of life, the process of homologous recombination (HR) plays a central role in the repair of double-strand DNA breaks and the restart of stalled replication forks. Curiously, main protein actors involved in the HR process appear to be essential for hyperthermophilic Archaea raising interesting questions about the role of HR in replication and repair strategies of those Archaea living in extreme conditions. One key actor of this process is the recombinase RadA, which allows the homologous strand search and provides a DNA substrate required for following DNA synthesis and restoring genetic information. DNA polymerase operation after the strand exchange step is unclear in Archaea. Working with Pyrococcus abyssi proteins, here we show that both DNA polymerases, family-B polymerase (PolB) and family-D polymerase (PolD), can take charge of processing the RadA-mediated recombination intermediates. Our results also indicate that PolD is far less efficient, as compared with PolB, to extend the invaded DNA at the displacement-loop (D-loop) substrate. These observations coincide with previous genetic analyses obtained on Thermococcus species showing that PolB is mainly involved in DNA repair without being essential probably because PolD could take over combined with additional partners.

The replication machinery of LUCA: common origin of DNA replication and transcription.

Origin of DNA replication is an enigma because the replicative DNA polymerases (DNAPs) are not homologous among the three domains of life, Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. The homology between the archaeal replicative DNAP (PolD) and the large subunits of the universal RNA polymerase (RNAP) responsible for transcription suggests a parsimonious evolutionary scenario. Under this model, RNAPs and replicative DNAPs evolved from a common ancestor that functioned as an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase in the RNA-protein world that predated the advent of DNA replication. The replicative DNAP of the Last Universal Cellular Ancestor (LUCA) would be the ancestor of the archaeal PolD.

Studies on DNA-related enzymes to elucidate molecular mechanisms underlying genetic information processing and their application in genetic engineering.

Recombinant DNA technology, in which artificially "cut and pasted" DNA in vitro is introduced into living cells, contributed extensively to the rapid development of molecular biology over the past 5 decades since the latter half of the 20th century. Although the original technology required special experiences and skills, the development of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) has greatly eased in vitro genetic manipulation for various experimental methods. The current development of a simple genome-editing technique using CRISPR-Cas9 gave great impetus to molecular biology. Genome editing is a major technique for elucidating the functions of many unknown genes. Genetic manipulation technologies rely on enzymes that act on DNA. It involves artificially synthesizing, cleaving, and ligating DNA strands by making good use of DNA-related enzymes present in organisms to maintain their life activities. In this review, I focus on key enzymes involved in the development of genetic manipulation technologies.

Switch of the interactions between the ribosomal stalk and EF1A in the GTP- and GDP-bound conformations.

Translation elongation factor EF1A delivers aminoacyl-tRNA to the ribosome in a GTP-bound form, and is released from the ribosome in a GDP-bound form. This association/dissociation cycle proceeds efficiently via a marked conformational change in EF1A. EF1A function is dependent on the ribosomal "stalk" protein of the ribosomal large subunit, although the precise mechanism of action of the stalk on EF1A remains unclear. Here, we clarify the binding mode of archaeal stalk aP1 to GTP-bound aEF1A associated with aPelota. Intriguingly, the C-terminal domain (CTD) of aP1 binds to aEF1A•GTP with a similar affinity to aEF1A•GDP. We have also determined the crystal structure of the aP1-CTD•aEF1A•GTP•aPelota complex at 3.0 Šresolution. The structure shows that aP1-CTD binds to a space between domains 1 and 3 of aEF1A. Biochemical analyses show that this binding is crucial for protein synthesis. Comparison of the structures of aP1-CTD•aEF1A•GTP and aP1-CTD•aEF1A•GDP demonstrates that the binding mode of aP1 changes markedly upon a conformational switch between the GTP- and GDP-bound forms of aEF1A. Taking into account biochemical data, we infer that aP1 employs its structural flexibility to bind to aEF1A before and after GTP hydrolysis for efficient protein synthesis.

Pol B, a Family B DNA Polymerase, in Thermococcus kodakarensis is Important for DNA Repair, but not DNA Replication.

Thermococcus kodakarensis possesses two DNA polymerases, Pol B and Pol D. We generated a T. kodakarensis strain (DPB1) in which polB was completely deleted and a derivative of DPB1 in which polB was overexpressed; neither of the generated strains exhibited any growth delay, indicating that the lack or overexpression of Pol B in T. kodakarensis did not affect cell growth. We also found that DPB1 showed higher sensitivity to four DNA-damaging agents (ultraviolet C irradiation, γ-ray irradiation, methyl methanesulfonate, and mitomycin C) than the parental strain. The sensitivity of DPB1 was restored to the level of the parent strain by the introduction of a plasmid harboring polB, suggesting that the DNA damage-sensitive phenotype of DPB1 was due to the loss of polB. Collectively, these results indicate that Pol B is involved in DNA repair, but not DNA replication, which, in turn, implies that Pol D is the sole replicative DNA polymerase in Thermococcus species.

A Preliminary Metagenome Analysis Based on a Combination of Protein Domains.

Metagenomic data have mainly been addressed by showing the composition of organisms based on a small part of a well-examined genomic sequence, such as ribosomal RNA genes and mitochondrial DNAs. On the contrary, whole metagenomic data obtained by the shotgun sequence method have not often been fully analyzed through a homology search because the genomic data in databases for living organisms on earth are insufficient. In order to complement the results obtained through homology-search-based methods with shotgun metagenomes data, we focused on the composition of protein domains deduced from the sequences of genomes and metagenomes, and we utilized them in characterizing genomes and metagenomes, respectively. First, we compared the relationships based on similarities in the protein domain composition with the relationships based on sequence similarities. We searched for protein domains of 325 bacterial species produced using the Pfam database. Next, the correlation coefficients of protein domain compositions between every pair of bacteria were examined. Every pairwise genetic distance was also calculated from 16S rRNA or DNA gyrase subunit B. We compared the results of these methods and found a moderate correlation between them. Essentially, the same results were obtained when we used partial random 100 bp DNA sequences of the bacterial genomes, which simulated raw sequence data obtained from short-read next-generation sequences. Then, we applied the method for analyzing the actual environmental data obtained by shotgun sequencing. We found that the transition of the microbial phase occurred because the seasonal change in water temperature was shown by the method. These results showed the usability of the method in characterizing metagenomic data based on protein domain compositions.

New archaeal viruses discovered by metagenomic analysis of viral communities in enrichment cultures.

Viruses infecting hyperthermophilic archaea of the phylum Crenarchaeota display enormous morphological and genetic diversity, and are classified into 12 families. Eight of these families include only one or two species, indicating sparse sampling of the crenarchaeal virus diversity. In an attempt to expand the crenarchaeal virome, we explored virus diversity in the acidic, hot spring Umi Jigoku in Beppu, Japan. Environmental samples were used to establish enrichment cultures under conditions favouring virus replication. The host diversity in the enrichment cultures was restricted to members of the order Sulfolobales. Metagenomic sequencing of the viral communities yielded seven complete or near-complete double-stranded DNA virus genomes. Six of these genomes could be attributed to polyhedral and filamentous viruses that were observed by electron microscopy in the enrichment cultures. Two icosahedral viruses represented species in the family Portogloboviridae. Among the filamentous viruses, two were identified as new species in the families Rudiviridae and Lipothrixviridae, whereas two other formed a group seemingly distinct from the known virus genera. No particle morphotype could be unequivocally assigned to the seventh viral genome, which apparently represents a new virus type. Our results suggest that filamentous viruses are globally distributed and are prevalent virus types in extreme geothermal environments.

Elucidating functions of DP1 and DP2 subunits from the Thermococcus kodakarensis family D DNA polymerase.

DNA polymerase D (PolD), originally discovered in Pyrococcus furiosus, has no sequence homology with any other DNA polymerase family. Genes encoding PolD are found in most of archaea, except for those archaea in the Crenarchaeota phylum. PolD is composed of two proteins: DP1 and DP2. To date, the 3D structure of the PolD heteromeric complex is yet to be determined. In this study, we established a method that prepared highly purified PolD from Thermococcus kodakarensis, and purified DP1 and DP2 proteins formed a stable complex in solution. An intrinsically disordered region was identified in the N-terminal region of DP1, but the static light scattering analysis provided a reasonable molecular weight of DP1. In addition, PolD forms as a complex of DP1 and DP2 in a 1:1 ratio. Electron microscope single particle analysis supported this composition of PolD. Both proteins play an important role in DNA synthesis activity and in 3'-5' degradation activity. DP1 has extremely low affinity for DNA, while DP2 is mainly responsible for DNA binding. Our work will provide insight and the means to further understand PolD structure and the molecular mechanism of this archaea-specific DNA polymerase.

Replication protein A complex in Thermococcus kodakarensis interacts with DNA polymerases and helps their effective strand synthesis.

Replication protein A (RPA) is an essential component of DNA metabolic processes. RPA binds to single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) and interacts with multiple DNA-binding proteins. In this study, we showed that two DNA polymerases, PolB and PolD, from the hyperthermophilic archaeon Thermococcus kodakarensis interact directly with RPA in vitro. RPA was expected to play a role in resolving the secondary structure, which may stop the DNA synthesis reaction, in the template ssDNA. Our in vitro DNA synthesis assay showed that the pausing was resolved by RPA for both PolB and PolD. These results supported the fact that RPA interacts with DNA polymerases as a member of the replisome and is involved in the normal progression of DNA replication forks.

Direct visualization of DNA baton pass between replication factors bound to PCNA.

In Eukarya and Archaea, the lagging strand synthesis is accomplished mainly by three key factors, DNA polymerase (Pol), flap endonuclease (FEN), and DNA ligase (Lig), in the DNA replication process. These three factors form important complexes with proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), thereby constructing a platform that enable each protein factor to act successively and smoothly on DNA. The structures of the Pol-PCNA-DNA and Lig-PCNA-DNA complexes alone have been visualized by single particle analysis. However, the FEN-PCNA-DNA complex structure remains unknown. In this report, we for the first time present this tertiary structure determined by single particle analysis. We also successfully visualized the structure of the FEN-Lig-PCNA-DNA complex, corresponding to a putative intermediate state between the removal of the DNA flap by FEN and the sealing of the nicked DNA by Lig. This structural study presents the direct visualization of the handing-over action, which proceeds between different replication factors on a single PCNA clamp bound to DNA. We detected a drastic conversion of the DNA from a bent form to a straight form, in addition to the dynamic motions of replication factors in the switching process.