Effects of follicle-stimulating hormone on energy balance and tissue metabolic health after loss of ovarian function.

Loss of ovarian function imparts increased susceptibility to obesity and metabolic disease. These effects are largely attributed to decreased estradiol (E2), but the role of increased follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) in modulating energy balance has not been fully investigated. Previous work that blocked FSH binding to its receptor in mice suggested this hormone may play a part in modulating body weight and energy expenditure after ovariectomy (OVX). We used an alternate approach to isolate the individual and combined contributions of FSH and E2 in mediating energy imbalance and changes in tissue-level metabolic health. Female Wistar rats were ovariectomized and given the gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) antagonist degarelix to suppress FSH production. E2 and FSH were then added back individually and in combination for a period of 3 wk. Energy balance, body mass composition, and transcriptomic profiles of individual tissues were obtained. In contrast to previous studies, suppression and replacement of FSH in our paradigm had no effect on body weight, body composition, food intake, or energy expenditure. We did, however, observe organ-specific effects of FSH that produced unique transcriptomic signatures of FSH in retroperitoneal white adipose tissue. These included reductions in biological processes related to lipogenesis and carbohydrate transport. In addition, rats administered FSH had reduced liver triglyceride concentration (P < 0.001), which correlated with FSH-induced changes at the transcriptomic level. Although not appearing to modulate energy balance after loss of ovarian function in rats, FSH may still impart tissue-specific effects in the liver and white adipose tissue that might affect the metabolic health of those organs.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We find no effect of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) on energy balance using a novel model in which rats are ovariectomized, subjected to gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonism, and systematically given back FSH by osmotic pump. However, tissue-specific effects of FSH on adipose tissue and liver were observed in this study. These include unique transcriptomic signatures induced by the hormone and a stark reduction in hepatic triglyceride accumulation.

Metabolic and fecal microbial changes in adult fetal growth restricted mice.

BACKGROUND: Fetal growth restriction (FGR) increases risk for development of obesity and type 2 diabetes. Using a mouse model of FGR, we tested whether metabolic outcomes were exacerbated by high-fat diet challenge or associated with fecal microbial taxa. METHODS: FGR was induced by maternal calorie restriction from gestation day 9 to 19. Control and FGR offspring were weaned to control (CON) or 45% fat diet (HFD). At age 16 weeks, offspring underwent intraperitoneal glucose tolerance testing, quantitative MRI body composition assessment, and energy balance studies. Total microbial DNA was used for amplification of the V4 variable region of the 16 S rRNA gene. Multivariable associations between groups and genera abundance were assessed using MaAsLin2. RESULTS: Adult male FGR mice fed HFD gained weight faster and had impaired glucose tolerance compared to control HFD males, without differences among females. Irrespective of weaning diet, adult FGR males had depletion of Akkermansia, a mucin-residing genus known to be associated with weight gain and glucose handling. FGR females had diminished Bifidobacterium. Metabolic changes in FGR offspring were associated with persistent gut microbial changes. CONCLUSION: FGR results in persistent gut microbial dysbiosis that may be a therapeutic target to improve metabolic outcomes. IMPACT: Fetal growth restriction increases risk for metabolic syndrome later in life, especially if followed by rapid postnatal weight gain. We report that a high fat diet impacts weight and glucose handling in a mouse model of fetal growth restriction in a sexually dimorphic manner. Adult growth-restricted offspring had persistent changes in fecal microbial taxa known to be associated with weight, glucose homeostasis, and bile acid metabolism, particularly Akkermansia, Bilophilia and Bifidobacteria. The gut microbiome may represent a therapeutic target to improve long-term metabolic outcomes related to fetal growth restriction.

The Microbiome, Epigenome, and Diet in Adults with Obesity during Behavioral Weight Loss.

Obesity has been linked to the gut microbiome, epigenome, and diet, yet these factors have not been studied together during obesity treatment. Our objective was to evaluate associations among gut microbiota (MB), DNA methylation (DNAme), and diet prior to and during a behavioral weight loss intervention. Adults (n = 47, age 40.9 ± 9.7 years, body mass index (BMI) 33.5 ± 4.5 kg/m2, 77% female) with data collected at baseline (BL) and 3 months (3 m) were included. Fecal MB was assessed via 16S sequencing and whole blood DNAme via the Infinium EPIC array. Food group and nutrient intakes and Healthy Eating Index (HEI) scores were calculated from 7-day diet records. Linear models were used to test for the effect of taxa relative abundance on DNAme and diet cross-sectionally at each time point, adjusting for confounders and a false discovery rate of 5%. Mean weight loss was 6.2 ± 3.9% at 3 m. At BL, one MB taxon, Ruminiclostridium, was associated with DNAme of the genes COL20A1 (r = 0.651, p = 0.029), COL18A1 (r = 0.578, p = 0.044), and NT5E (r = 0.365, p = 0.043). At 3 m, there were 14 unique MB:DNAme associations, such as Akkermansia with DNAme of GUSB (r = -0.585, p = 0.003), CRYL1 (r = -0.419, p = 0.007), C9 (r = -0.439, p = 0.019), and GMDS (r = -0.559, p = 0.046). Among taxa associated with DNAme, no significant relationships were seen with dietary intakes of relevant nutrients, food groups, or HEI scores. Our findings indicate that microbes linked to mucin degradation, short-chain fatty acid production, and body weight are associated with DNAme of phenotypically relevant genes. These relationships offer an initial understanding of the possible routes by which alterations in gut MB may influence metabolism during weight loss.

Oral combined contraceptives induce liver mitochondrial reactive oxygen species and whole-body metabolic adaptations in female mice.

Compared to age-matched men, pre-menopausal women show greater resilience against cardiovascular disease (CVD), hepatic steatosis, diabetes and obesity - findings that are widely attributed to oestrogen. However, meta-analysis data suggest that current use of oral combined contraceptives (OC) is a risk factor for myocardial infarction, and OC use further compounds with metabolic disease risk factors to increase CVD susceptibility. While mitochondrial function in tissues such as the liver and skeletal muscle is an emerging mechanism by which oestrogen may confer its protection, effects of OC use on mitochondria and metabolism in the context of disease risk remain unexplored. To answer this question, female C57Bl/6J mice were fed a high fat diet and treated with vehicle or OCs for 3, 12 or 20 weeks (n = 6 to 12 per group) at a dose and ratio that mimic the human condition of cycle cessation in the low oestrogen, high progesterone stage. Liver and skeletal muscle mitochondrial function (respiratory capacity, H2 O2 , coupling) was measured along with clinical outcomes of cardiometabolic disease such as obesity, glucose tolerance, hepatic steatosis and aortic atherosclerosis. The main findings indicate that regardless of treatment duration, OCs robustly increase hepatic mitochondrial H2 O2 levels, likely due to diminished antioxidant capacity, but have no impact on muscle mitochondrial H2 O2 . Furthermore, OC-treated mice had lower adiposity and hepatic triglyceride content compared to control mice despite reduced wheel running, spontaneous physical activity and total energy expenditure. Together, these studies describe tissue-specific effects of OC use on mitochondria as well as variable impacts on markers of metabolic disease susceptibility. KEY POINTS: Oestrogen loss in women increases risk for cardiometabolic diseases, a link that has been partially attributed to negative impacts on mitochondria and energy metabolism. To study the effect of oral combined contraceptives (OCs) on hepatic and skeletal muscle mitochondria and whole-body energy metabolism, we used an animal model of OCs which mimics the human condition of cessation of hormonal cycling in the low oestrogen, high progesterone state. OC-treated mice have increased hepatic mitochondrial oxidative stress and decreased physical activity and energy expenditure, despite displaying lower adiposity and liver fat at this time point. These pre-clinical data reveal tissue-specific effects of OCs that likely underlie the clinical findings of increased cardiometabolic disease in women who use OCs compared to non-users, when matched for obesity.

The Gut Microbiota during a Behavioral Weight Loss Intervention.

Altered gut microbiota has been linked to obesity and may influence weight loss. We are conducting an ongoing weight loss trial, comparing daily caloric restriction (DCR) to intermittent fasting (IMF) in adults who are overweight or obese. We report here an ancillary study of the gut microbiota and selected obesity-related parameters at the baseline and after the first three months of interventions. During this time, participants experienced significant improvements in clinical health measures, along with altered composition and diversity of fecal microbiota. We observed significant associations between the gut microbiota features and clinical measures, including weight and waist circumference, as well as changes in these clinical measures over time. Analysis by intervention group found between-group differences in the relative abundance of Akkermansia in response to the interventions. Our results provide insight into the impact of baseline gut microbiota on weight loss responsiveness as well as the early effects of DCR and IMF on gut microbiota.

Multiomic Predictors of Short-Term Weight Loss and Clinical Outcomes During a Behavioral-Based Weight Loss Intervention.

OBJECTIVE: Identifying predictors of weight loss and clinical outcomes may increase understanding of individual variability in weight loss response. We hypothesized that baseline multiomic features, including DNA methylation (DNAme), metabolomics, and gut microbiome, would be predictive of short-term changes in body weight and other clinical outcomes within a comprehensive weight loss intervention. METHODS: Healthy adults with overweight or obesity (n = 62, age 18-55 years, BMI 27-45 kg/m2 , 75.8% female) participated in a 1-year behavioral weight loss intervention. To identify baseline omic predictors of changes in clinical outcomes at 3 and 6 months, whole-blood DNAme, plasma metabolites, and gut microbial genera were analyzed. RESULTS: A network of multiomic relationships informed predictive models for 10 clinical outcomes (body weight, waist circumference, fat mass, hemoglobin A1c , homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance, total cholesterol, triglycerides, C-reactive protein, leptin, and ghrelin) that changed significantly (P < 0.05). For eight of these, adjusted R2 ranged from 0.34 to 0.78. Our models identified specific DNAme sites, gut microbes, and metabolites that were predictive of variability in weight loss, waist circumference, and circulating triglycerides and that are biologically relevant to obesity and metabolic pathways. CONCLUSIONS: These data support the feasibility of using baseline multiomic features to provide insight for precision nutrition-based weight loss interventions.

Preconceptional Lipid-Based Nutrient Supplementation in 2 Low-Resource Countries Results in Distinctly Different IGF-1/mTOR Placental Responses.

BACKGROUND: Preconceptional maternal small-quantity lipid-based nutrient supplementation (SQLNS) improved intrauterine linear growth in low-resource countries as demonstrated by the Women First Preconception Maternal Nutrition Trial (WF). Fetal growth is dependent on nutrient availability and regulated by insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) through changes in placental transfer capacity, mediated by the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway. OBJECTIVES: Our objective was to evaluate the role of placental mTOR and IGF-1 signaling on fetal growth in women from 2 low-resource countries with high rates of stunting after they received preconceptional SQLNS. METHODS: We studied 48 women from preconception through delivery who were from Guatemala and Pakistan and received SQLNS or not, as part of the WF study. Placental samples were obtained at delivery (control, n = 24; SQLNS, n = 24). Placental protein or mRNA expression of eukaryotic translation initiation factor binding protein-1 (4E-BP1), ribosomal protein S6 (rpS6), AMP-activated protein kinase α (AMPKA), IGF-1, insulin-like growth factor receptor (IGF-1R), and pregnancy associated plasma protein (PAPP)-A, and DNA methylation of the IGF1 promoter were determined. Maternal serum IGF-1, insulin-like growth factor binding protein (IGFBP)-3, IGFBP-4, IGFBP-5, PAPP-A, PAPP-A2, and zinc were measured. RESULTS: Mean ± SEM maternal prepregnancy BMI differed between participants in Guatemala (26.5 ± 1.3) and Pakistan (19.8 ± 0.7) (P < 0.001). In Pakistani participants, SQLNS increased the placental rpS6(T37/46):rpS6 ratio (1.5-fold) and decreased the AMPKA(T172):AMPKA ratio. Placental IGF1 mRNA expression was positively correlated with birth length and birth weight z-scores. Placental PAPP-A (30-fold) and maternal serum zinc (1.2-fold) increased with SQLNS. In Guatemalan participants SQLNS did not influence placental mTOR signaling. Placental IGF-1R protein expression was positively associated with birth length and birth weight z-scores. SQLNS increased placental PAPP-A (40-fold) and maternal serum IGFBP-4 (1.6-fold). CONCLUSIONS: In Pakistani pregnant women with poor nutritional status, preconceptional SQLNS activated placental mTOR and IGF-1 signaling and was associated with improved fetal growth. In contrast, in Guatemalan women SQLNS did not activate placental nutrient-sensing pathways. In populations experiencing childhood stunting, preconceptional SQLNS improves placental function and fetal growth only in the context of poor maternal nutrition. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01883193.

Longitudinal Changes of One-Carbon Metabolites and Amino Acid Concentrations during Pregnancy in the Women First Maternal Nutrition Trial.

BACKGROUND: Maternal dietary restriction and supplementation of one-carbon (1C) metabolites can impact offspring growth and DNA methylation. However, longitudinal research of 1C metabolite and amino acid (AA) concentrations over the reproductive cycle of human pregnancy is limited. OBJECTIVE: To investigate longitudinal 1C metabolite and AA concentrations prior to and during pregnancy and the effects of a small-quantity lipid-based nutrition supplement (LNS) containing >20 micronutrients and prepregnancy BMI (ppBMI). METHODS: This study was an ancillary study of the Women First Trial (NCT01883193, clinicaltrials.gov) focused on a subset of Guatemalan women (n = 134), 49% of whom entered pregnancy with a BMI ≥25 kg/m2. Ninety-five women received LNS during pregnancy (+LNS group), while the remainder did not (-LNS group). A subset of women from the Pakistan study site (n = 179) were used as a replication cohort, 124 of whom received LNS. Maternal blood was longitudinally collected on dried blood spot (DBS) cards at preconception, and at 12 and 34 wk gestation. A targeted metabolomics assay was performed on DBS samples at each time point using LC-MS/MS. Longitudinal analyses were performed using linear mixed modeling to investigate the influence of time, LNS, and ppBMI. RESULTS: Concentrations of 23 of 27 metabolites, including betaine, choline, and serine, changed from preconception across gestation after application of a Bonferroni multiple testing correction (P < 0.00185). Sixteen of those metabolites showed similar changes in the replication cohort. Asymmetric and symmetric dimethylarginine were decreased by LNS in the participants from Guatemala. Only tyrosine was statistically associated with ppBMI at both study sites. CONCLUSIONS: Time influenced most 1C metabolite and AA concentrations with a high degree of similarity between the 2 diverse study populations. These patterns were not significantly altered by LNS consumption or ppBMI. Future investigations will focus on 1C metabolite changes associated with infant outcomes, including DNA methylation. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01883193.

Assessment of the Timing of Milestone Clinical Events in Patients With Epidermolysis Bullosa From North America.

Importance: Children with epidermolysis bullosa (EB) comprise a rare population with high morbidity and mortality. An improved understanding of the clinical trajectory of patients with EB, including age at time of clinical diagnosis and major clinical events, is needed to refine best practices and improve quality of life and clinical outcomes for patients with EB. Objectives: To describe demographics, clinical characteristics, milestone diagnostic and clinical events (such as initial esophageal dilation), and outcomes in patients with EB using the Epidermolysis Bullosa Clinical Characterization and Outcomes Database and to determine what characteristics may be associated with overall EB severity and/or disease progression. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cohort study included data on patients with EB who were enrolled in the Epidermolysis Bullosa Clinical Characterization and Outcomes Database from January 1, 2011, to June 30, 2017; 17 participating EB centers in the United States and Canada contributed data to this study. Exposures: Type of EB, including recessive dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa (RDEB), junctional epidermolysis bullosa (JEB), dominant dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa (DDEB), and epidermolysis bullosa simplex (EBS). Main Outcomes and Measures: Demographic information, clinical characteristics (including age at onset of signs of EB and subsequent clinical diagnosis), types of diagnostic testing performed, and milestone clinical events for patients with RDEB. Results: Of 644 enrolled patients from 17 sites included in this study, 323 were male (50.2%), with a mean (SD) age of 14.4 (11.7) years; 283 (43.9%) had RDEB, 194 (30.1%) had EBS, 104 (16.2%) had DDEB, and 63 (9.8%) had JEB. Signs of disease were present at birth in 202 patients with RDEB (71.4%), 39 with JEB (61.9%), 60 with DDEB (57.7%), and 74 with EBS (38.1%). For those with signs of disease at birth, a clinical diagnosis was made at the time of birth in 135 patients with RDEB (67.0%), 31 with DDEB (52.6%), 35 with EBS, (47.3%) and 18 with JEB (46.2%). Patients with JEB had the highest rate of any confirmatory testing (51 of 63 [81.0%]), followed by RDEB (218 of 283 [77.0%]), DDEB (71 of 104 [68.3%]), and EBS (100 of 194 [51.5%]). For all types of EB, both electron microscopy and immunofluorescence microscopy were performed at younger ages than genetic analysis. Among 283 patients with RDEB, 157 (55.5%) had esophageal dilation, 104 (36.7%) had gastrostomy tube placement, 62 (21.9%) had hand surgery, 18 (6.4%) developed squamous cell carcinoma, and 19 (6.7%) died. Conclusions and Relevance: The findings suggest that diagnostic testing for EB is more common for patients with severe phenotypes. Earlier diagnostic testing may enable improved characterizations of patients so that appropriate counseling and clinical care may be offered, especially pertaining to milestone events for those with RDEB.

Estrogen switches pure mucinous breast cancer to invasive lobular carcinoma with mucinous features.

Mucinous breast cancer (MBC) is mainly a disease of postmenopausal women. Pure MBC is rare and augurs a good prognosis. In contrast, MBC mixed with other histological subtypes of invasive disease loses the more favorable prognosis. Because of the relative rarity of pure MBC, little is known about its cell and tumor biology and relationship to invasive disease of other subtypes. We have now developed a human breast cancer cell line called BCK4, in which we can control the behavior of MBC. BCK4 cells were derived from a patient whose poorly differentiated primary tumor was treated with chemotherapy, radiation and tamoxifen. Malignant cells from a recurrent pleural effusion were xenografted in mammary glands of a nude mouse. Cells from the solid tumor xenograft were propagated in culture to generate the BCK4 cell line. Multiple marker and chromosome analyses demonstrate that BCK4 cells are human, near diploid and luminal, expressing functional estrogen, androgen, and progesterone receptors. When xenografted back into immunocompromised cycling mice, BCK4 cells grow into small pure MBC. However, if mice are supplemented with continuous estradiol, tumors switch to invasive lobular carcinoma (ILC) with mucinous features (mixed MBC), and growth is markedly accelerated. Tamoxifen prevents the expansion of this more invasive component. The unexpected ability of estrogens to convert pure MBC into mixed MBC with ILC may explain the rarity of the pure disease in premenopausal women. These studies show that MBC can be derived from lobular precursors and that BCK4 cells are new, unique models to study the phenotypic plasticity, hormonal regulation, optimal therapeutic interventions, and metastatic patterns of MBC.

Unliganded progesterone receptors attenuate taxane-induced breast cancer cell death by modulating the spindle assembly checkpoint.

Whether the presence of steroid receptors in luminal breast cancers renders them resistant to taxanes remains uncertain. Here we assess the role of progesterone receptors (PR) on taxane-induced cell death. We previously showed that estrogen receptor (ER)-positive human breast cancer cells that inducibly express PR-A or PR-B isoforms were protected from taxane-stimulated apoptosis when compared to the identical cells lacking PR. Surprisingly, PR-dependent protection occurred in the absence of progesterone, demonstrating that the unliganded receptors were biologically active. The present studies demonstrate that unliganded PR, focused on PR-A, protect breast cancer cells from taxane-stimulated apoptosis. The studies identify genes regulated by taxanes in isogenic ER-positive cells that either lack or express PR-A. We show that unliganded PR-A alters the gene expression pattern controlled by taxanes, especially multiple genes involved in the spindle assembly checkpoint, a group of proteins that insure proper attachment of microtubules to kinetochores during mitosis. Importantly, taxanes and unliganded PR regulate many of these genes in opposite directions. As a result, mitotic slippage is exacerbated by the presence of PR, leading to an increase in the number of multinucleated cells both in vitro and in xenograft tumors. We describe a simple new assay for assessing multinucleation in paraffin sections. We speculate that rather than inducing cell death, unliganded PR exploits multinucleation to promote cell survival from taxane therapy. This can be prevented with antiprogestin.

ALU repeats in promoters are position-dependent co-response elements (coRE) that enhance or repress transcription by dimeric and monomeric progesterone receptors.

We have conducted an in silico analysis of progesterone response elements (PRE) in progesterone receptor (PR) up-regulated promoters. Imperfect inverted repeats, direct repeats, and half-site PRE are widespread, not only in PR-regulated, but also in non-PR-regulated and random promoters. Few resemble the commonly used palindromic PRE with three nucleotide (nt) spacers. We speculated that PRE may be necessary but insufficient to control endogenous PR-dependent transcription. A search for PRE partners identified a highly conserved 234-nt sequence invariably located within 1-2 kb of transcription start sites. It resembles ALU repeats and contains binding sites for 11 transcription factors. The 234-nt sequence of the PR-regulated 8-oxoguanine DNA glycosylase promoter was cloned in the forward or reverse orientation in front of zero, one, or two inverted repeat PRE, and one or tandem PRE half-sites, driving luciferase. Under these conditions the 234-nt sequence functions as a co-response element (coRE). From the PRE or tandem half-sites, the reverse coRE is a strong activator of PR and glucocorticoid receptor-dependent transcription. The forward coRE is a powerful repressor. The prevalence of PRE half-sites in natural promoters suggested that PR monomers regulate transcription. Indeed, dimerization-domain mutant PR monomers were stronger transactivators than wild-type PR on PRE or tandem half-sites. This was repressed by the forward coRE. We propose that in natural promoters the coRE functions as a composite response element with imperfect PRE and half-sites to present variable, orientation-dependent transcription factors for interaction with nearby PR.

Down-regulation of WW domain-containing oxidoreductase induces Tau phosphorylation in vitro. A potential role in Alzheimer's disease.

Numerous enzymes hyperphosphorylate Tau in vivo, leading to the formation of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) in the neurons of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Compared with age-matched normal controls, we demonstrated here that the protein levels of WW domain-containing oxidoreductase WOX1 (also known as WWOX or FOR), its Tyr33-phosphorylated form, and WOX2 were significantly down-regulated in the neurons of AD hippocampi. Remarkably knock-down of WOX1 expression by small interfering RNA in neuroblastoma SK-N-SH cells spontaneously induced Tau phosphorylation at Thr212/Thr231 and Ser515/Ser516, enhanced phosphorylation of glycogen synthase kinase 3beta (GSK-3beta) and ERK, and enhanced NFT formation. Also an increased binding of phospho-GSK-3beta with phospho-Tau was observed in these WOX1 knock-down cells. In comparison, increased phosphorylation of Tau, GSK-3beta, and ERK, as well as NFT formation, was observed in the AD hippocampi. Activation of JNK1 by anisomycin further increased Tau phosphorylation, and SP600125 (a JNK inhibitor) and PD-98059 (an MEK1/2 inhibitor) blocked Tau phosphorylation and NFT formation in these WOX1 knock-down cells. Ectopic or endogenous WOX1 colocalized with Tau, JNK1, and GSK-3beta in neurons and cultured cells. 17Beta-estradiol, a neuronal protective hormone, increased the binding of WOX1 and GSK-3beta with Tau. Mapping analysis showed that WOX1 bound Tau via its COOH-terminal short-chain alcohol dehydrogenase/reductase domain. Together WOX1 binds Tau via its short-chain alcohol dehydrogenase/reductase domain and is likely to play a critical role in regulating Tau hyperphosphorylation and NFT formation in vivo.

SP600125, an inhibitor of c-jun N-terminal kinase, activates CREB by a p38 MAPK-mediated pathway.

SP600125, an anthrapyrazolone inhibitor of c-jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), has been used to characterize the role of JNK in apoptotic pathways. In this study, we have demonstrated an additional novel anti-apoptotic action of this inhibitor in MIN6 cells, a mouse beta cell line. SP600125 induced CREB-dependent promoter activation by 2.8-fold at 20 microM, the concentration at which it inhibited c-jun-dependent promoter activation by 51%. There was a significant (P<0.01) increase in CREB phosphorylation (serine 133) at 5 min, which persisted for a period of 2h. Examination of signaling pathways upstream of CREB showed a 2.5-fold increase in the active phospho form of p38 MAPK. This finding was further confirmed by an in vitro kinase assay using ATF-2 as substrate. SB203580, an inhibitor of p38 MAPK, partially blocked SP600125-mediated activation of CREB. These observations suggest that SP600125 could be used as a small molecular weight activator of CREB.

Cytokine-mediated down-regulation of the transcription factor cAMP-response element-binding protein in pancreatic beta-cells.

Cytokines are known to induce apoptosis of pancreatic beta-cells. Impaired expression of the anti-apoptotic gene bcl-2 is one of the mechanisms involved. In this study, we identified a defect involving transcription factor cAMP-response element-binding protein (CREB) in the expression of bcl-2. Exposure of mouse pancreatic beta-cell line, MIN6 cells, to cytokines (interleukin-1beta, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and interferon-gamma) led to a significant (p < 0.01) decrease in Bcl-2 protein and mRNA levels. Cytokines decreased (56%) the activity of the bcl-2 promoter that contains a cAMP-response element (CRE) site. Similar decreases were seen with a luciferase reporter gene driven by tandem repeats of CRE and a CREB-specific Gal4-luciferase reporter, suggesting a defect at the level of CREB. The active phospho form (serine 133) of CREB diminished significantly (p < 0.01) in cells exposed to cytokines. Examination of signaling pathways upstream of CREB revealed a reduction in the active form of Akt. Cytokine-induced decrease of bcl-2 promoter activity was partially restored when cells were cotransfected with a constitutively active form of Akt. Several end points of cytokine action including decreases in phospho-CREB, phospho-Akt, and BCl-2 levels and activation of caspase-9 were observed in isolated mouse islets. Overexpression of wild-type CREB in MIN6 cells by plasmid transfection and adenoviral infection led to protection against cytokine-induced apoptosis. Adenoviral transfer of dominant-negative forms of CREB, on the other hand, resulted in activation of caspase-9 and exaggeration of cytokine-induced beta-cell apoptosis. Together, these results point to CREB as a novel target for strategies aimed at improving the survival of beta-cells.

Oxidative stress-mediated down-regulation of bcl-2 promoter in hippocampal neurons.

Generation of oxidative stress/reactive oxygen species (ROS) is one of the causes of neuronal apoptosis. We have examined the effects of ROS at the transcriptional level in an immortalized hippocampal neuronal cell line (H19-7) and in rat primary hippocampal neurons. Treatment of H19-7 cells with hydrogen peroxide (150 micro m) resulted in a 40% decrease in Bcl-2 protein and a parallel decrease in bcl-2 mRNA levels. H19-7 cells overexpressing bcl-2 were found to be resistant to ROS-induced apoptosis. We had previously shown that bcl-2 promoter activity is positively regulated by the transcription factor cyclic AMP response element binding protein (CREB) in neurons. In the present study, we demonstrate that ROS decreases the activity of luciferase reporter gene driven by a cyclic AMP response element site containing bcl-2 promoter. Exposure of neurons to ROS for 6 h resulted in basal and fibroblast growth factor-2-stimulated phosphorylation/activation of CREB. Chronic 24 h treatment with ROS led to a significant (p < 0.01) decrease in CREB protein and CREB mRNA levels. Adenoviral overexpression of wild type CREB in H19-7 cells resulted in significant (p < 0.01) protection against ROS-induced apoptosis through up-regulation of Bcl-2 expression whereas dominant negative CREB exaggerated the injury. These findings demonstrate that loss of CREB function contributes to oxidative stress-induced neuronal dysfunction.