Time Patterns in Internal Human Exposure Data to Bisphenols, Phthalates, DINCH, Organophosphate Flame Retardants, Cadmium and Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons in Europe.

Human biomonitoring (HBM) data in Europe are often fragmented and collected in different EU countries and sampling periods. Exposure levels for children and adult women in Europe were evaluated over time. For the period 2000-2010, literature and aggregated data were collected in a harmonized way across studies. Between 2011-2012, biobanked samples from the DEMOCOPHES project were used. For 2014-2021, HBM data were generated within the HBM4EU Aligned Studies. Time patterns on internal exposure were evaluated visually and statistically using the 50th and 90th percentiles (P50/P90) for phthalates/DINCH and organophosphorus flame retardants (OPFRs) in children (5-12 years), and cadmium, bisphenols and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in women (24-52 years). Restricted phthalate metabolites show decreasing patterns for children. Phthalate substitute, DINCH, shows a non-significant increasing pattern. For OPFRs, no trends were statistically significant. For women, BPA shows a clear decreasing pattern, while substitutes BPF and BPS show an increasing pattern coinciding with the BPA restrictions introduced. No clear patterns are observed for PAHs or cadmium. Although the causal relations were not studied as such, exposure levels to chemicals restricted at EU level visually decreased, while the levels for some of their substitutes increased. The results support policy efficacy monitoring and the policy-supportive role played by HBM.

Current Status of Vector-Borne Diseases in Croatia: Challenges and Future Prospects.

Different vector-borne pathogens are present or have (re-)emerged in Croatia. Flaviviruses tick-borne encephalitis (TBEV), West Nile (WNV), and Usutu (USUV) are widely distributed in continental regions, while Toscana virus (TOSV) and sandfly fever viruses are detected at the Croatian littoral. Recently, sporadic clinical cases of Tahyna orthobunyavirus (TAHV) and Bhanja bandavirus infection and seropositive individuals have been reported in continental Croatia. Acute infections and serologic evidence of WNV, TBEV, USUV, and TAHV were also confirmed in sentinel animals and vectors. Autochthonous dengue was reported in 2010 at the Croatian littoral. Lyme borreliosis is the most widely distributed vector-borne bacterial infection. The incidence is very high in northwestern and eastern regions, which correlates with numerous records of Ixodes ricinus ticks. Acute human Anaplasma phagocytophilum infections are reported sporadically, but there are many records of serologic evidence of anaplasmosis in animals. Mediterranean spotted fever (Rickettsia conorii) and murine typhus (Rickettsia typhi) are the main rickettsial infections in Croatia. Human leishmaniasis is notified sporadically, while serologic evidence of leishmaniasis was found in 11.4% of the Croatian population. After the official eradication of malaria in 1964, only imported cases were reported in Croatia. Since vector-borne diseases show a growing trend, continuous monitoring of vectors is required to protect the population from these infections.

Harmonized human biomonitoring in European children, teenagers and adults: EU-wide exposure data of 11 chemical substance groups from the HBM4EU Aligned Studies (2014-2021).

As one of the core elements of the European Human Biomonitoring Initiative (HBM4EU) a human biomonitoring (HBM) survey was conducted in 23 countries to generate EU-wide comparable HBM data. This survey has built on existing HBM capacity in Europe by aligning national or regional HBM studies, referred to as the HBM4EU Aligned Studies. The HBM4EU Aligned Studies included a total of 10,795 participants of three age groups: (i) 3,576 children aged 6-12 years, (ii) 3,117 teenagers aged 12-18 years and (iii) 4,102 young adults aged 20-39 years. The participants were recruited between 2014 and 2021 in 11-12 countries per age group, geographically distributed across Europe. Depending on the age group, internal exposure to phthalates and the substitute DINCH, halogenated and organophosphorus flame retardants, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), cadmium, bisphenols, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), arsenic species, acrylamide, mycotoxins (deoxynivalenol (total DON)), benzophenones and selected pesticides was assessed by measuring substance specific biomarkers subjected to stringent quality control programs for chemical analysis. For substance groups analyzed in different age groups higher average exposure levels were observed in the youngest age group, i.e., phthalates/DINCH in children versus teenagers, acrylamide and pesticides in children versus adults, benzophenones in teenagers versus adults. Many biomarkers in teenagers and adults varied significantly according to educational attainment, with higher exposure levels of bisphenols, phthalates, benzophenones, PAHs and acrylamide in participants (from households) with lower educational attainment, while teenagers from households with higher educational attainment have higher exposure levels for PFASs and arsenic. In children, a social gradient was only observed for the non-specific pyrethroid metabolite 3-PBA and di-isodecyl phthalate (DiDP), with higher levels in children from households with higher educational attainment. Geographical variations were seen for all exposure biomarkers. For 15 biomarkers, the available health-based HBM guidance values were exceeded with highest exceedance rates for toxicologically relevant arsenic in teenagers (40%), 3-PBA in children (36%), and between 11 and 14% for total DON, Σ (PFOA + PFNA + PFHxS + PFOS), bisphenol S and cadmium. The infrastructure and harmonized approach succeeded in obtaining comparable European wide internal exposure data for a prioritized set of 11 chemical groups. These data serve as a reference for comparison at the global level, provide a baseline to compare the efficacy of the European Commission's chemical strategy for sustainability and will give leverage to national policy makers for the implementation of targeted measures.

Seroprevalence Trends and Molecular Epidemiology of Viral Hepatitis in Croatia.

Viral hepatitis is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. In Croatia, hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) are widely distributed, especially in some high-risk groups such as people who inject drugs (PWID), prisoners, and highly promiscuous groups. The seroprevalence of HBV ranges from 7.0% in the general population to 38.8% in PWID, depending on the region. The seroprevalence of HCV is highest among PWID (29-75.5%) as compared to 0.9% in the general population. Analyzing the distribution of HCV genotypes, no substantial changes in the molecular epidemiology of the two most frequent HCV genotypes (1 and 3) in the past 20 years were observed. However, the predominance of subtype 1b compared to subtype 1a as detected in 1996-2005 was not confirmed in 2008-2015. Hepatitis A virus (HAV) incidence was high in the past with a decreasing trend since the 2000s, except for an outbreak in 2017-2018 as part of the large European outbreak, which was mainly among men who have sex with men. Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is an emerging virus detected for the first time in Croatia in 2012. The seroprevalence of HEV is high among hemodialysis patients (27.9%) and liver transplant recipients (19.3-24.4%). In addition, higher seroprevalence rates were observed in animal-related professions (e.g., veterinarians, 15.2%; hunters, 14.9%). All detected HEV strains belonged to genotype 3.

Cadmium exposure in adults across Europe: Results from the HBM4EU Aligned Studies survey 2014-2020.

The objectives of the study were to estimate the current exposure to cadmium (Cd) in Europe, potential differences between the countries and geographic regions, determinants of exposure and to derive European exposure levels. The basis for this work was provided by the European Human Biomonitoring Initiative (HBM4EU) which established a framework for alignment of national or regional HBM studies. For the purpose of Cd exposure assessment, studies from 9 European countries (Iceland, Denmark, Poland, Czech Republic, Croatia, Portugal, Germany, France, Luxembourg) were included and urine of 20-39 years old adults sampled in the years 2014-2021 (n = 2510). The measurements in urine were quality assured by the HBM4EU quality assurance/quality control scheme, study participants' questionnaire data were post-harmonized. Spatially resolved external data, namely Cd concentrations in soil, agricultural areas, phosphate fertilizer application, traffic density and point source Cd release were collected for the respective statistical territorial unit (NUTS). There were no distinct geographic patterns observed in Cd levels in urine, although the data revealed some differences between the specific study sites. The levels of exposure were otherwise similar between two time periods within the last decade (DEMOCOPHES - 2011-2012 vs. HBM4EU Aligned Studies, 2014-2020). The age-dependent alert values for Cd in urine were exceeded by 16% of the study participants. Exceedances in the different studies and locations ranged from 1.4% up to 42%. The studies with largest extent of exceedance were from France and Poland. Association analysis with individual food consumption data available from participants' questionnaires showed an important contribution of vegetarian diet to the overall exposure, with 35% higher levels in vegetarians as opposed to non-vegetarians. For comparison, increase in Cd levels due to smoking was 25%. Using NUTS2-level external data, positive associations between HBM data and percentage of cropland and consumption of Cd-containing mineral phosphate fertilizer were revealed, which indicates a significant contribution of mineral phosphate fertilizers to human Cd exposure through diet. In addition to diet, traffic and point source release were identified as significant sources of exposure in the study population. The findings of the study support the recommendation by EFSA to reduce Cd exposure as also the estimated mean dietary exposure of adults in the EU is close or slightly exceeding the tolerable weekly intake. It also indicates that regulations are not protecting the population sufficiently.

Insights into hepatitis E virus epidemiology in Croatia.

BACKGROUND: Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is an emerging virus of global health concern. The seroprevalence rates differ greatly according to geographic region and population group. AIM: To analyze the seroprevalence of HEV in exposed (animal-related professions) and nonexposed populations, as well as solid organ and hematopoietic stem cell transplant patients. METHODS: Forestry workers (n = 93), hunters (n = 74), and veterinarians (n = 151) represented the exposed population. The general population (n = 126) and pregnant women (n = 118) constituted the control group. Transplant patients included liver transplant recipients (LTRs) (n = 83), kidney transplant recipients (KTRs) (n = 43), and hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients (HSCRs) (n = 39). HEV immunoglobulin G antibodies were detected using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and confirmed by the immunoblot test. RESULTS: The HEV seroprevalence significantly differed between groups: Veterinarians 15.2%, hunters 14.9%, forestry workers 6.5%, general population 7.1%, and pregnant women 1.7%. In transplant patients, the seropositivity was highest in LTRs (19.3%), while in KTRs and HSCRs, the seroprevalence was similar to the general population (6.9% and 5.1%, respectively). A significant increase in seropositivity with age was observed from 2.9% in individuals less than 30 years to 23.5% in those older than 60 years. Sociodemographic characteristics (sex, educational level, area of residence, and number of household members), eating habits (game meat, offal, and pork products consumption), and environmental and housing conditions (drinking water supply, type of water drainage/sewer, waste disposal, domestic animals) were not associated with HEV seropositivity. However, individuals who reported a pet ownership were more often seropositive compared to those who did not have pet animals (12.5% vs 7.0%). CONCLUSION: The results of this study showed that individuals in professional contact with animals and LTRs are at higher risk for HEV infection. In addition, age is a significant risk factor for HEV seropositivity.

Emerging Trends in the Epidemiology of COVID-19: The Croatian 'One Health' Perspective.

During the four pandemic waves, a total of 560,504 cases and 10,178 deaths due to COVID-19 were reported in Croatia. The Alpha variant, dominant from March 2021 (>50% of positive samples), was rapidly replaced by Delta variants (>90%) by August 2021. Several seroprevalence studies were conducted in different populations (general population, children/adolescents, professional athletes, healthcare workers, veterinarians) and in immunocompromised patients (hemodialysis patients, liver/kidney transplant recipients). After the first pandemic wave, seroprevalence rates of neutralizing (NT) antibodies were reported to be 0.2-5.5%. Significantly higher seropositivity was detected during/after the second wave, 2.6-18.7%. Two studies conducted in pet animals (February-June 2020/July-December 2020) reported SARS-CoV-2 NT antibodies in 0.76% of cats and 0.31-14.69% of dogs, respectively. SARS-CoV-2 NT antibodies were not detected in wildlife. Environmental samples taken in the households of COVID-19 patients showed high-touch personal objects as most frequently contaminated (17.3%), followed by surfaces in patients' rooms (14.6%), kitchens (13.3%) and bathrooms (8.3%). SARS-CoV-2 RNA was also detected in 96.8% affluent water samples, while all effluent water samples tested negative. Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in humans, animals and the environment suggests that the 'One Health' approach is critical to controlling COVID-19 and future pandemics.

Emerging and Neglected Viruses of Zoonotic Importance in Croatia.

Several arboviruses have emerged in Croatia in recent years. Tick-borne encephalitis is endemic in continental counties; however, new natural micro-foci have been detected. Two autochthonous dengue cases were reported in 2010. West Nile virus emerged in 2012, followed by emergence of Usutu virus in 2013. Although high seroprevalence rates of Toscana virus have been detected among residents of Croatian littoral, the virus remains neglected, with only a few clinical cases of neuroinvasive infections reported. Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus is a neglected neuroinvasive rodent-borne virus. So far, there are no reports on human clinical cases; however, the seroprevalence studies indicate the virus presence in the Croatian mainland. Puumala and Dobrava hantaviruses are widely distributing rodent-borne viruses with sporadic and epidemic occurrence. Hepatitis E virus is an emerging food-borne virus in Croatia. After the emergence in 2012, cases were regularly recorded. Seropositivity varies greatly by region and population group. Rotaviruses represent a significant healthcare burden since rotavirus vaccination is not included in the Croatian national immunization program. Additionally, rotaviruses are widely distributed in the Croatian ecosystem. A novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, emerged in February 2020 and spread rapidly throughout the country. This review focuses on emerging and neglected viruses of zoonotic importance detected in Croatia.

RESPONSE OF CROATIAN HEALTH CARE SYSTEM TO MIGRANT CRISIS IN THE PERIOD FROM SEPTEMBER 16 TO DECEMBER 31, 2015. / ODGOVOR ZDRAVSTVENOG SUSTAVA REPUBLIKE HRVATSKE NA MIGRANTSKU KRIZU U RAZDOBLJU OD 16. RUJNA DO 31. PROSINCA 2015.

With the arrival of the fi rst wave of migrants in the Republic of Croatia on September 16, 2015, the Croatian Government adopted a Decision on the establishment of the State's Headquarters for coordination of migrant related activities, in whose work the Ministry of Health was included as well. In accordance with the statutory powers, the Crisis Headquarters of the Ministry of Health carried out the activities with the goal of organization and functioning of healthcare. In the initial wave of migration, health care was provided in the temporary refugee camp Opatovac, as well as at border crossings, after which followed the Winter Transit Center in Slavonski Brod. Since the beginning of the migrant crisis until the end of 2015 more than 550 thousand migrants passed through Croatia, out of which 21.694 people requested medical care.

Health protection and risks for rescuers in cases of floods.

Floods can pose a number of safety and health hazards for flood-affected populations and rescuers and bring risk of injuries, infections, and diseases due to exposure to pathogenic microorganisms and different biological and chemical contaminants. The risk factors and possible health consequences for the rescuers involved in evacuation and rescuing operations during the May 2014 flood crisis in Croatia are shown, as well as measures for the prevention of injuries and illnesses. In cases of extreme floods, divers play a particularly important role in rescuing and first-response activities. Rescuing in contaminated floodwaters means that the used equipment such as diving suits should be disinfected afterwards. The need for securing the implementation of minimal health and safety measures for involved rescuers is paramount. Data regarding injuries and disease occurrences among rescuers are relatively scarce, indicating the need for medical surveillance systems that would monitor and record all injuries and disease occurrences among rescuers in order to ensure sound epidemiological data. The harmful effects of flooding can be reduced by legislation, improvement of flood forecasting, establishing early warning systems, and appropriate planning and education.

Characteristics of self-medication for pain relief among first-year health care students in Zagreb, Croatia.

BACKGROUND: Taking over the responsibility for one's own health and active participation in eliminating the existing health problems is ever more widespread in the world. Self-medication in the form of using any kind of therapy without previous consultation with medical professionals has been ever more common among student populations in many countries. The aim of this study was to determine the attitudes about self-medication for pain relief and features of self-medication in first-year students of the University of Applied Health Studies in Zagreb. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: The study was conducted using an anonymous questionnaire, which was completed by 389 respondents. RESULTS: Taking painkillers in the past year was reported by 74.6% of respondents, significantly more by female students (80.8%); 62.6% of female students used painkillers once a month versus 45.7% of male students taking analgesics once a year. Ibuprofen was preferred by female students and acetylsalicylic acid by male students. Headache was the most common indication for taking painkillers (76.6%), followed by menstrual discomforts in female students (66.2%) and toothache (28.6%). Significant sex differences were recorded in the choice of drugs, indications for self-medication, and frequency of drug use. There were no differences between study courses. CONCLUSIONS: Appropriate student education and improved information transfer between professionals and students are the key elements to ensure judicious, quality and knowledge based use of drugs among students.

[USE OF COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE AMONG FAMILY MEDICINE PATIENTS--EXAMPLE OF THE TOWN OF CAKOVEC]. / UPOTREBA KOMPLEMENTARNE I ALTERNATIVNE MEDICINE KOD PACIJENATA U OBITELJSKOJ MEDICINI--PRIMJER GRADA CAKOVCA.

The use of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) is widespread around the world including Croatia. The number of studies that investigate both quantitative and qualitative use of CAM in Croatia is limited. The aim of this study was to investigate the use of CAM among family medicine patients in the town of Cakovec and the rate they report it to their family doctor. This was a cross-sectional study in a sample of 300 patients that visited primary health center for any reason. We used anonymous questionnaire already employed in a previous investigation (Cizmesija et al. 2008), which describes socioeconomic characteristics, modalities of CAM use, and reasons for use. We also added questions on the type of herbs used and use of over-the-counter vitamin and mineral supplements. On data analysis we used descriptive statistics, χ2-test and Fisher's exact test, while the level of statistical significance was set at p ≤ 0.05. The response rate was 76%. Out of the total number of patients, 82% used some modality of CAM. Women, patients with secondary school education, employed and retired persons used CAM more often. Students and pupils reported least use of CAM. The most commonly used were herbs (87%), bioenergy (29%), diet therapy (28%), chiropractics (22%), and homeopathy and acupuncture (11% each). Vitamin and mineral supplements were used by 77% of study subjects. CAM was most frequently used for respiratory, urinary and musculoskeletal problems, as well as to improve overall health condition. Of the respondents that reported CAM use, 55% believed it would help them, 43% used it because they wanted to try something new, while only 2% indicated dissatisfaction with their physician as the reason for using CAM. Statistically, there were more subjects that used CAM and did not notify their family doctor about it, which could indicate poor communication between family doctors and health care users. Our results are consistent with a previous quantitative study conducted in Croatia and with literature data on the countries with a predominant use of western medicine. Qualitative data from previous studies in Croatia could explain the cultural and socioeconomic context of CAM use. Dissatisfaction with their physician as the reason for using CAM was rarely indicated, suggesting that CAM most probably fills the gap between successful and unsuccessful treatment, and perception that evidence based medicine has its own limitations. The arguments to turn to CAM therapy could involve poor doctor to patient ratio, i.e. 1750 patients per family medicine doctor on average, and the 20% increase in the number of diseases and conditions diagnosed by family medicine units. In conclusion, these results suggest that the use of CAM is common among patients in family medicine. When taking patient history, doctors should ask about CAM use and be aware of the patient beliefs and lifestyle. When patients strongly believe in CAM methods, there is the need of making compromise in therapy, with explanation of the possible side effects and at the same time continuous follow up. There is the need of additional education of family doctors and population about good and bad effects of CAM. In Croatia, accent should be on herbalism because this modality is most widespread.

[Dance as a risk factor for injuries and development of occupational diseases]. / Ples kao cimbenik rizika za ozljede i razvoj profesionalnih bolesti.

Injuries and diseases can significantly affect the creativity and artistic performance. The link between working conditions and artistic performance had been recognised as early as the medieval age. Physically demanding performance arts such as dance can sometimes result in injuries, illnesses, inability to perform, and even end artist's career. Dancers are exposed to specific risks and in need of specific medical care. Many dancers often stretch their physical capabilities and endurance and neglect their physical limitations. Their health problems include a number of work-related illnesses that range from stress and stage fright to metabolic and nutritional disorders. They also include musculoskeletal injuries due to overload training that are often the beginning of chronic health problems.

The use of mercury-based medical devices across Croatian healthcare facilities.

In 2009, we conducted a survey to assess the use of mercury-based thermometers and sphygmomanometers and their disposal in Croatian healthcare facilities. The questionnaire addressing the use of mercury-based medical devices, waste management, preferences between mercury-based and electronic devices, and the knowledge on mercury toxicity was filled by ward nurses affiliated with 40 (71.4 %) out of 56 contacted healthcare facilities. Only one of these facilities had given up the use of mercury-containing medical devices at the time. As many as 84.6 % of the nurses believed that broken devices did not increase the risk of mercury exposure, even though 90 % claimed they were aware of mercury toxicity. In fact, 69.4 % of the nurses preferred mercury-containing devices on account of their precision and reliability and because they received little training in the use of electronic devices.Breaking of thermometers and sphygmomanometers is common in healthcare facilities. The number of broken thermometers and sphygmomanometers was estimated to 278 and five per month, respectively. Only 18 (46.2 %) of the surveyed healthcare facilities claimed to have had a proper disposal procedure for mercury from broken devices. Nurses, who most often handle these devices and collect mercury spills, are primarily exposed to mercury vapours via inhalation. Croatia has adopted the EU Directive 76/769/EEC intended to reduce mercury exposure in the living and working environment. Our survey suggests that all healthcare professionals need training in proper management of broken mercury-based medical devices, nurses in particular. To reduce the risk of exposure, all Croatian healthcare facilities should implement guidelines for staff protection and programmes to gradually replace mercury-based with electronic devices.

Cardiovascular risk factors and visiting nurse intervention--evaluation of a Croatian survey and intervention model: the CroHort study.

The aim of this study is to identify factors that influence the success of the implementation of the primary and secondary prevention programs in Croatia by the visiting/community services. Two main sources of information were used: reports about regular visiting nurse services in Croatia and research about visiting nurse participation in the Croatian Adult Health Cohort Study (CroHort) 2008. Out of the total number 9,070 respondents who participated in CAHS 2003 survey, during CroHort 2008 program 3,229 (35.6%) participants were re-interviewed. The qualitative analysis was done with a sample of 34 visiting nurses, which participated in the CroHort 2008. Results show that there are three key problems which limit preventive programs: inability of the health care system to recognize the importance of the primary prevention; visiting nurses' lack capacity to implement prevention and populations' lack of motivation and education.

Five-year cumulative incidence of unhealthy diet in adult Croatian population: the CroHort study.

This study investigated 5-year cumulative incidence of unhealthy dietary habits across various gender and age groups within the CroHort study, a repeated cross-sectional survey of Croatian adults. The results monitoring the frequency of certain foodstuffs consumption indicate that 10.6% of examinees (10.9% of men, and 9.1% of women) reported worsening of their dietary habits in 2008 as compared to 2003. The cumulative incidence of unhealthy diet was higher in men than in women, and was highest in younger age-groups (18-34 years), both in men and women. The public health programmes should be strengthened in a way which would put a special emphasis on education of younger adults, especially males, on nutrition health impact and healthy diet principles.

Risk factors for cardiovascular disease in rural area of Croatia.

Rural areas, where 47.6% of the Croatian population lives are not generally the focus of research; yet there are challenges which affect the rural population that often go unreported. These communities often exhibit disadvantages in many areas of health. The aim of this study is to examine the specific health needs and related determinants of rural populations influenced by transition that were affected by the consequences of war. The focus of the research is rural lifestyle, behaviour and cardiovascular risk factors in three villages of Sisacko-moslavacka County. Results show that participants generally understand that their own lifestyles influence their health, but they often neglect to change their behaviour to improve their health. This can be explained through complex socio-economic conditions and traditional values of their heritage. These results suggest a need for further research on health status, attitude, and behaviour of Croatia's rural population. Specific public health intervention and services for rural populations must be promoted.

Known symptoms and diseases of a number of classical European composers during 17th and 20th century in relation with their artistic musical expressions.

Medical history and relationship to the medical conditions as well as to the music creativity and productivity of some of the classical European composers have been described. In this review article we analyzed their illnesses as well as association between physical or mental diseases and their creativity and adaptability to disease. Some classical composers suffered from organic diseases, while others complained of mental disturbances. However, in spite of their disorders, the intensity of their creativity mostly remained unchanged.

Regional pattern of physical inactivity in Croatia.

The aim of this paper was to analyze the regional pattern of physical inactivity in Croatia based on the Croatian Adult Health Survey 2003 data. A total of 9,070 adult respondents were included in this study. In men, the highest prevalence of physical inactivity was recorded in the City of Zagreb (39.6%), and it was significantly higher than in Central (25.6%), Coastal (25.6%) and Mountainous region (14.1%). Mountainous region had significantly lower prevalence of physical inactivity compared to any other region, except the Central region. The highest prevalence of physical inactivity in women was also recorded in the City of Zagreb (43.6%), and it was also significantly higher than in all other regions. The lowest prevalence of physical inactivity was recorded in Eastern Region (24.7%). The highest levels of physical inactivity in both in both genders were recorded in urban regions, suggesting that intervention measures in terms of health promotion should be undertaken, with strong emphasis on the people living in urban settings.

Management of hazardous medical waste in Croatia.

This article provides a review of hazardous medical waste production and its management in Croatia. Even though Croatian regulations define all steps in the waste management chain, implementation of those steps is one of the country's greatest issues. Improper practice is evident from the point of waste production to final disposal. The biggest producers of hazardous medical waste are hospitals that do not implement existing legislation, due to the lack of education and funds. Information on quantities, type and flow of medical waste are inadequate, as is sanitary control. We propose an integrated approach to medical waste management based on a hierarchical structure from the point of generation to its disposal. Priority is given to the reduction of the amounts and potential for harm. Where this is not possible, management includes reduction by sorting and separating, pretreatment on site, safe transportation, final treatment and sanitary disposal. Preferred methods should be the least harmful for human health and the environment. Integrated medical waste management could greatly reduce quantities and consequently financial strains. Landfilling is the predominant route of disposal in Croatia, although the authors believe that incineration is the most appropriate method. In a country such as Croatia, a number of small incinerators would be the most economical solution.