Inhibition of NF-κB signaling ablates the invasive phenotype of glioblastoma.

UNLABELLED: Glioblastoma multiforme, the most common primary brain tumor, is highly refractory to therapy, mainly due to its ability to form micrometastases, which are small clusters or individual cells that rapidly transverse the brain and make full surgical resection impossible. Here, it is demonstrated that the invasive phenotype of glioblastoma multiforme is orchestrated by the transcription factor NF-κB which, via metalloproteinases (MMP), regulates fibronectin processing. Both, cell lines and tumor stem cells from primary glioblastoma multiforme, secrete high levels of fibronectin which when cleaved by MMPs forms an extracellular substrate. Subsequently, forming and interacting with their own microenvironment, glioblastoma multiforme cells are licensed to invade their surroundings. Mechanistic study revealed that NF-κB inhibition, either genetically or pharmacologically, by treatment with Disulfiram, significantly abolished the invasive phenotype in the chick chorioallantoic membrane assay. Furthermore, having delineated the underlying molecular mechanism of glioblastoma multiforme invasion, the potential of a disulfiram-based therapy was revealed in a highly invasive orthotrophic glioblastoma multiforme mouse model. IMPLICATIONS: This study defines a novel therapeutic approach that inhibits micrometastases invasion and reverts lethal glioblastoma into a less aggressive disease.

Sequential dosing in chemosensitization: targeting the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway in neuroblastoma.

Breaking resistance to chemotherapy is a major goal of combination therapy in many tumors, including advanced neuroblastoma. We recently demonstrated that increased activity of the PI3K/Akt network is associated with poor prognosis, thus providing an ideal target for chemosensitization. Here we show that targeted therapy using the PI3K/mTOR inhibitor NVP-BEZ235 significantly enhances doxorubicin-induced apoptosis in neuroblastoma cells. Importantly, this increase in apoptosis was dependent on scheduling: while pretreatment with the inhibitor reduced doxorubicin-induced apoptosis, the sensitizing effect in co-treatment could further be increased by delayed addition of the inhibitor post chemotherapy. Desensitization for doxorubicin-induced apoptosis seemed to be mediated by a combination of cell cycle-arrest and autophagy induction, whereas sensitization was found to occur at the level of mitochondria within one hour of NVP-BEZ235 posttreatment, leading to a rapid loss of mitochondrial membrane potential with subsequent cytochrome c release and caspase-3 activation. Within the relevant time span we observed marked alterations in a ∼30 kDa protein associated with mitochondrial proteins and identified it as VDAC1/Porin protein, an integral part of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore complex. VDAC1 is negatively regulated by the PI3K/Akt pathway via GSK3ß and inhibition of GSK3ß, which is activated when Akt is blocked, ablated the sensitizing effect of NVP-BEZ235 posttreatment. Our findings show that cancer cells can be sensitized for chemotherapy induced cell death - at least in part - by NVP-BEZ235-mediated modulation of VDAC1. More generally, we show data that suggest that sequential dosing, in particular when multiple inhibitors of a single pathway are used in the optimal sequence, has important implications for the general design of combination therapies involving molecular targeted approaches towards the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling network.

Smac mimetic bypasses apoptosis resistance in FADD- or caspase-8-deficient cells by priming for tumor necrosis factor α-induced necroptosis.

Searching for new strategies to bypass apoptosis resistance, we investigated the potential of the Smac mimetic BV6 in Jurkat leukemia cells deficient in key molecules of the death receptor pathway. Here, we demonstrate for the first time that Smac mimetic primes apoptosis-resistant, FADD- or caspase-8-deficient leukemia cells for TNFα-induced necroptosis in a synergistic manner. In contrast to TNFα, Smac mimetic significantly enhances CD95-induced apoptosis in wild-type but not in FADD-deficient cells. Interestingly, Smac mimetic- and TNFα-mediated cell death occurs without characteristic features of apoptosis (i.e., caspase activation, DNA fragmentation) in FADD-deficient cells. By comparison, Smac mimetic and TNFα trigger activation of caspase-8, -9, and -3 and DNA fragmentation in wild-type cells. Consistently, the caspase inhibitor zVAD.fmk fails to block Smac mimetic- and TNFα-triggered cell death in FADD- or caspase-8-deficient cells, while it confers protection in wild-type cells. By comparison, necrostatin-1, an RIP1 kinase inhibitor, abolishes Smac mimetic- and TNFα-induced cell death in FADD- or caspase-8-deficient. Thus, Smac mimetic enhances TNFα-induced cell death in leukemia cells via two distinct pathways in a context-dependent manner: it primes apoptosis-resistant cells lacking FADD or caspase-8 to TNFα-induced, RIP1-dependent and caspase-independent necroptosis, whereas it sensitizes apoptosis-proficient cells to TNFα-mediated, caspase-dependent apoptosis. These findings have important implications for the therapeutic exploitation of necroptosis as an alternative cell death program to overcome apoptosis resistance.

NF-κB is required for Smac mimetic-mediated sensitization of glioblastoma cells for γ-irradiation-induced apoptosis.

Evasion of apoptosis contributes to radioresistance of glioblastoma, calling for novel strategies to overcome apoptosis resistance. In this study, we investigated the potential of the small molecule Smac mimetic BV6 to modulate radiosensitivity of glioblastoma cells. Here, we identify a novel proapoptotic function of NF-κB in γ-irradiation-induced apoptosis of glioblastoma cells by showing, for the first time, that NF-κB is critically required for Smac mimetic-mediated radiosensitization. BV6 significantly increases γ-irradiation-triggered apoptosis in several glioblastoma cell lines in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Calculation of combination index (CI) reveals that the interaction of BV6 and γ-irradiation is highly synergistic (CI < 0.3). Molecular studies show that BV6 stimulates NF-κB activation, which is critical for radiosensitization, because genetic inhibition of NF-κB by overexpression of the dominant-negative superrepressor IκBα-SR significantly decreases BV6- and γ-irradiation-induced apoptosis. Also, the BV6-mediated enhancement of γ-irradiation-triggered caspase activation, drop of mitochondrial membrane potential, and cytochrome c release is abolished in cells overexpressing IκBα-SR. Similarly, NF-κB inhibition by ectopic expression of a kinase dead mutant of IKKß prevents the BV6-mediated sensitization for γ-irradiation. The clinical relevance is underscored by experiments with primary tumor samples showing that BV6 sensitizes primary cultured glioma cells as well as glioblastoma-initiating cancer stem cells derived from surgical specimens for γ-irradiation. In conclusion, we identify NF-κB as a critical mediator of Smac mimetic-conferred radiosensitization of glioblastoma cells. These results have important implications for the development of Smac mimetic-based combination protocols for radiosensitization of glioblastoma.