RESUMEN
Field studies of primate positional behavior typically rely on ground-level estimates of substrate size, angle, and canopy location. These estimates potentially influence the identification of positional modes by the observer recording behaviors. In this study we aim to test ground-level estimates against direct measurements of support angles, diameters, and canopy heights in trees at La Suerte Biological Research Station in Costa Rica. After reviewing methods that have been used by past researchers, we provide data collected within trees that are compared to estimates obtained from the ground. We climbed five trees and measured 20 supports. Four observers collected measurements of each support from different locations on the ground. Diameter estimates varied from the direct tree measures by 0-28 cm (Mean: 5.44 ± 4.55). Substrate angles varied by 1-55° (Mean: 14.76 ± 14.02). Height in the tree was best estimated using a clinometer as estimates with a two-meter reference placed by the tree varied by 3-11 meters (Mean: 5.31 ± 2.44). We determined that the best support size estimates were those generated relative to the size of the focal animal and divided into broader categories. Support angles were best estimated in 5° increments and then checked using a Haglöf clinometer in combination with a laser pointer. We conclude that three major factors should be addressed when estimating support features: observer error (e.g., experience and distance from the target), support deformity, and how support size and angle influence the positional mode selected by a primate individual. individual.
Asunto(s)
Antropología Física/métodos , Conducta Animal/fisiología , Animales , Costa Rica , Ambiente , Modelos Lineales , Locomoción , Postura , Proyectos de Investigación , ÁrbolesRESUMEN
Whole genome comparisons identified introgression from archaic to modern humans. Our analysis of highly polymorphic human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I, vital immune system components subject to strong balancing selection, shows how modern humans acquired the HLA-B*73 allele in west Asia through admixture with archaic humans called Denisovans, a likely sister group to the Neandertals. Virtual genotyping of Denisovan and Neandertal genomes identified archaic HLA haplotypes carrying functionally distinctive alleles that have introgressed into modern Eurasian and Oceanian populations. These alleles, of which several encode unique or strong ligands for natural killer cell receptors, now represent more than half the HLA alleles of modern Eurasians and also appear to have been later introduced into Africans. Thus, adaptive introgression of archaic alleles has significantly shaped modern human immune systems.
Asunto(s)
Genes MHC Clase I , Antígenos HLA-A/genética , Antígenos HLA-B/genética , Antígenos HLA-C/genética , Hominidae/genética , Hominidae/inmunología , Hibridación Genética , Grupos Raciales/genética , Adaptación Biológica , Alelos , Animales , Pueblo Asiatico/genética , Población Negra/genética , Evolución Molecular , Variación Genética , Antígenos HLA-A/inmunología , Antígenos HLA-A/metabolismo , Antígenos HLA-B/inmunología , Antígenos HLA-B/metabolismo , Antígenos HLA-C/inmunología , Haplotipos , Humanos , Células Asesinas Naturales/inmunología , Ligandos , Desequilibrio de Ligamiento , Datos de Secuencia Molecular , Nativos de Hawái y Otras Islas del Pacífico/genética , Receptores KIR/inmunología , Receptores KIR/metabolismo , Selección Genética , Población Blanca/genéticaRESUMEN
UNLABELLED: We introduce REJECTOR, software for parameter estimation and comparison of alternate models of population history from genetic data via a rejection algorithm. Through coalescent simulation, REJECTOR generates numerous gene genealogies, and hence simulated data, under a model of population history specified by the user. Summary statistics derived from such simulated data are compared with observed statistics, leading to acceptance or rejection of a given set of parameter values. We performed tests of the software using known parameter values in order to assess the inferential power provided by each summary statistic. The tests demonstrate the precision and accuracy of estimation made possible using this approach. AVAILABILITY: http://www.rejector.org
