Strain-invariant stretchable radio-frequency electronics.

Wireless modules that provide telecommunications and power-harvesting capabilities enabled by radio-frequency (RF) electronics are vital components of skin-interfaced stretchable electronics1-7. However, recent studies on stretchable RF components have demonstrated that substantial changes in electrical properties, such as a shift in the antenna resonance frequency, occur even under relatively low elastic strains8-15. Such changes lead directly to greatly reduced wireless signal strength or power-transfer efficiency in stretchable systems, particularly in physically dynamic environments such as the surface of the skin. Here we present strain-invariant stretchable RF electronics capable of completely maintaining the original RF properties under various elastic strains using a 'dielectro-elastic' material as the substrate. Dielectro-elastic materials have physically tunable dielectric properties that effectively avert frequency shifts arising in interfacing RF electronics. Compared with conventional stretchable substrate materials, our material has superior electrical, mechanical and thermal properties that are suitable for high-performance stretchable RF electronics. In this paper, we describe the materials, fabrication and design strategies that serve as the foundation for enabling the strain-invariant behaviour of key RF components based on experimental and computational studies. Finally, we present a set of skin-interfaced wireless healthcare monitors based on strain-invariant stretchable RF electronics with a wireless operational distance of up to 30 m under strain.

A wirelessly programmable, skin-integrated thermo-haptic stimulator system for virtual reality.

Sensations of heat and touch produced by receptors in the skin are of essential importance for perceptions of the physical environment, with a particularly powerful role in interpersonal interactions. Advances in technologies for replicating these sensations in a programmable manner have the potential not only to enhance virtual/augmented reality environments but they also hold promise in medical applications for individuals with amputations or impaired sensory function. Engineering challenges are in achieving interfaces with precise spatial resolution, power-efficient operation, wide dynamic range, and fast temporal responses in both thermal and in physical modulation, with forms that can extend over large regions of the body. This paper introduces a wireless, skin-compatible interface for thermo-haptic modulation designed to address some of these challenges, with the ability to deliver programmable patterns of enhanced vibrational displacement and high-speed thermal stimulation. Experimental and computational investigations quantify the thermal and mechanical efficiency of a vertically stacked design layout in the thermo-haptic stimulators that also supports real-time, closed-loop control mechanisms. The platform is effective in conveying thermal and physical information through the skin, as demonstrated in the control of robotic prosthetics and in interactions with pressure/temperature-sensitive touch displays.

Design and Fabrication of Stretchable Microwave Transmission Lines Based on a Quasi-Microstrip Structure.

Radio frequency (RF) electronics are vital components of stretchable electronics that require wireless capabilities, ranging from skin-interfaced wearable systems to implantable devices to soft robotics. One of the key challenges in stretchable electronics is achieving near-lossless transmission line technology that can carry high-frequency electrical signals between various RF components. Almost all existing stretchable interconnection strategies only demonstrate direct current or low-frequency electrical properties, limiting their use in high frequencies, especially in the MHz to GHz range. Here, we describe the design and fabrication of a simple stretchable RF transmission line strategy that integrates a quasi-microstrip structure into a stretchable serpentine microscale interconnection. We show the effects of quasi-microstrip structural dimensions on the RF performance based on detailed quantitative analysis and experimentally demonstrate the optimized device capable of carrying RF signals with frequencies of up to 40 GHz with near-lossless characteristics. To show the potential application of our transmission line in stretchable microwave electronics, we designed a single-stage power amplifier system with a gain of 9.8 dB at 9 GHz that fully utilizes our quasi-microstrip transmission line technology.

Wearable and Implantable Cortisol-Sensing Electronics for Stress Monitoring.

Cortisol is a steroid hormone that is released from the body in response to stress. Although a moderate level of cortisol secretion can help the body maintain homeostasis, excessive secretion can cause various diseases, such as depression and anxiety. Conventional methods for cortisol measurement undergo procedures that limit continuous monitoring, typically collecting samples of bodily fluids, followed by separate analysis in a laboratory setting that takes several hours. Thus, recent studies demonstrate wearable, miniaturized sensors integrated with electronic modules that enable wireless real-time analysis. Here, the primary focus is on wearable and implantable electronic devices that continuously measure cortisol concentration. Diverse types of cortisol-sensing techniques, such as antibody-, DNA-aptamer-, and molecularly imprinted polymer-based sensors, as well as wearable and implantable devices that aim to continuously monitor cortisol in a minimally invasive fashion are discussed. In addition to the cortisol monitors that directly measure stress levels, other schemes that indirectly measure stress, such as electrophysiological signals and sweat are also summarized. Finally, the challenges and future directions in stress monitoring and management electronics are reviewed.

Skin-integrated systems for power efficient, programmable thermal sensations across large body areas.

Thermal sensations contribute to our ability to perceive and explore the physical world. Reproducing these sensations in a spatiotemporally programmable manner through wireless computer control could enhance virtual experiences beyond those supported by video, audio and, increasingly, haptic inputs. Flexible, lightweight and thin devices that deliver patterns of thermal stimulation across large areas of the skin at any location of the body are of great interest in this context. Applications range from those in gaming and remote socioemotional communications, to medical therapies and physical rehabilitation. Here, we present a set of ideas that form the foundations of a skin-integrated technology for power-efficient generation of thermal sensations across the skin, with real-time, closed-loop control. The systems exploit passive cooling mechanisms, actively switchable thermal barrier interfaces, thin resistive heaters and flexible electronics configured in a pixelated layout with wireless interfaces to portable devices, the internet and cloud data infrastructure. Systematic experimental studies and simulation results explore the essential mechanisms and guide the selection of optimized choices in design. Demonstration examples with human subjects feature active thermoregulation, virtual social interactions, and sensory expansion.

Biodegradable, three-dimensional colorimetric fliers for environmental monitoring.

Recently reported winged microelectronic systems offer passive flight mechanisms as a dispersal strategy for purposes in environmental monitoring, population surveillance, pathogen tracking, and other applications. Initial studies indicate potential for technologies of this type, but advances in structural and responsive materials and in aerodynamically optimized geometries are necessary to improve the functionality and expand the modes of operation. Here, we introduce environmentally degradable materials as the basis of 3D fliers that allow remote, colorimetric assessments of multiple environmental parameters-pH, heavy metal concentrations, and ultraviolet exposure, along with humidity levels and temperature. Experimental and theoretical investigations of the aerodynamics of these systems reveal design considerations that include not only the geometries of the structures but also their mass distributions across a range of bioinspired designs. Preliminary field studies that rely on drones for deployment and for remote colorimetric analysis by machine learning interpretation of digital images illustrate scenarios for practical use.

A bioresorbable peripheral nerve stimulator for electronic pain block.

Local electrical stimulation of peripheral nerves can block the propagation of action potentials, as an attractive alternative to pharmacological agents for the treatment of acute pain. Traditional hardware for such purposes, however, involves interfaces that can damage nerve tissue and, when used for temporary pain relief, that impose costs and risks due to requirements for surgical extraction after a period of need. Here, we introduce a bioresorbable nerve stimulator that enables electrical nerve block and associated pain mitigation without these drawbacks. This platform combines a collection of bioresorbable materials in architectures that support stable blocking with minimal adverse mechanical, electrical, or biochemical effects. Optimized designs ensure that the device disappears harmlessly in the body after a desired period of use. Studies in live animal models illustrate capabilities for complete nerve block and other key features of the technology. In certain clinically relevant scenarios, such approaches may reduce or eliminate the need for use of highly addictive drugs such as opioids.

Three-dimensional electronic microfliers inspired by wind-dispersed seeds.

Large, distributed collections of miniaturized, wireless electronic devices1,2 may form the basis of future systems for environmental monitoring3, population surveillance4, disease management5 and other applications that demand coverage over expansive spatial scales. Aerial schemes to distribute the components for such networks are required, and-inspired by wind-dispersed seeds6-we examined passive structures designed for controlled, unpowered flight across natural environments or city settings. Techniques in mechanically guided assembly of three-dimensional (3D) mesostructures7-9 provide access to miniature, 3D fliers optimized for such purposes, in processes that align with the most sophisticated production techniques for electronic, optoelectronic, microfluidic and microelectromechanical technologies. Here we demonstrate a range of 3D macro-, meso- and microscale fliers produced in this manner, including those that incorporate active electronic and colorimetric payloads. Analytical, computational and experimental studies of the aerodynamics of high-performance structures of this type establish a set of fundamental considerations in bio-inspired design, with a focus on 3D fliers that exhibit controlled rotational kinematics and low terminal velocities. An approach that represents these complex 3D structures as discrete numbers of blades captures the essential physics in simple, analytical scaling forms, validated by computational and experimental results. Battery-free, wireless devices and colorimetric sensors for environmental measurements provide simple examples of a wide spectrum of applications of these unusual concepts.

Transparent, Compliant 3D Mesostructures for Precise Evaluation of Mechanical Characteristics of Organoids.

Recently developed methods for transforming 2D patterns of thin-film materials into 3D mesostructures create many interesting opportunities in microsystems design. A growing area of interest is in multifunctional thermal, electrical, chemical, and optical interfaces to biological tissues, particularly 3D multicellular, millimeter-scale constructs, such as spheroids, assembloids, and organoids. Herein, examples of 3D mechanical interfaces are presented, in which thin ribbons of parylene-C form the basis of transparent, highly compliant frameworks that can be reversibly opened and closed to capture, envelop, and mechanically restrain fragile 3D tissues in a gentle, nondestructive manner, for precise measurements of viscoelastic properties using techniques in nanoindentation. Finite element analysis serves as a design tool to guide selection of geometries and material parameters for shape-matching 3D architectures tailored to organoids of interest. These computational approaches also quantitate all aspects of deformations during the processes of opening and closing the structures and of forces imparted by them onto the surfaces of enclosed soft tissues. Studies of cerebral organoids by nanoindentation show effective Young's moduli in the range from 1.5 to 2.5 kPa depending on the age of the organoid. This collection of results suggests broad utility of compliant 3D mesostructures in noninvasive mechanical measurements of millimeter-scale, soft biological tissues.

Heterogeneously integrated flexible microwave amplifiers on a cellulose nanofibril substrate.

Low-cost flexible microwave circuits with compact size and light weight are highly desirable for flexible wireless communication and other miniaturized microwave systems. However, the prevalent studies on flexible microwave electronics have only focused on individual flexible microwave elements such as transistors, inductors, capacitors, and transmission lines. Thinning down supporting substrate of rigid chip-based monolithic microwave integrated circuits has been the only approach toward flexible microwave integrated circuits. Here, we report a flexible microwave integrated circuit strategy integrating membrane AlGaN/GaN high electron mobility transistor with passive impedance matching networks on cellulose nanofibril paper. The strategy enables a heterogeneously integrated and, to our knowledge, the first flexible microwave amplifier that can output 10 mW power beyond 5 GHz and can also be easily disposed of due to the use of cellulose nanofibril paper as the circuit substrate. The demonstration represents a critical step forward in realizing flexible wireless communication devices.

Injectable Biomedical Devices for Sensing and Stimulating Internal Body Organs.

The rapid pace of progress in implantable electronics driven by novel technology has created devices with unconventional designs and features to reduce invasiveness and establish new sensing and stimulating techniques. Among the designs, injectable forms of biomedical electronics are explored for accurate and safe targeting of deep-seated body organs. Here, the classes of biomedical electronics and tools that have high aspect ratio structures designed to be injected or inserted into internal organs for minimally invasive monitoring and therapy are reviewed. Compared with devices in bulky or planar formats, the long shaft-like forms of implantable devices are easily placed in the organs with minimized outward protrusions via injection or insertion processes. Adding flexibility to the devices also enables effortless insertions through complex biological cavities, such as the cochlea, and enhances chronic reliability by complying with natural body movements, such as the heartbeat. Diverse types of such injectable implants developed for different organs are reviewed and the electronic, optoelectronic, piezoelectric, and microfluidic devices that enable stimulations and measurements of site-specific regions in the body are discussed. Noninvasive penetration strategies to deliver the miniscule devices are also considered. Finally, the challenges and future directions associated with deep body biomedical electronics are explained.

Cuff and sieve electrode (CASE): The combination of neural electrodes for bi-directional peripheral nerve interfacing.

BACKGROUND: A number of peripheral nerve interfaces for nerve stimulation and recording exist for the purpose of controlling neural prostheses, each with a set of advantages and disadvantages. The ultimate goal of neural prostheses is a seamless bi-directional communication between the peripheral nervous system and the prosthesis. Here, we developed an interfacing electrode array, the "cuff and sieve electrodes" (CASE), integrating microfabricated cuff and sieve electrodes to a single unit, to decrease the weaknesses faced by these electrode designs in isolation. This paper presents the design and fabrication of CASE with ex vivo and in vivo testing towards chronic application. METHODS: Electroplating on electrode sites was performed to improve electrical properties of CASE. The surface morphology and chemical compound were characterized using scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive spectroscopy, respectively. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and cyclic voltammetry were performed to evaluate the electrical properties of CASE and determine viability for in vivo applications. Terminal CASE implantations were performed in a rat sciatic transection model to test the ease of implantation and capacity to write sensory information into the biological system. RESULTS: The modified platinum film resulted in reducing impedance magnitude (9.18 kΩ and 2.27 kΩ) and increasing phase angle (over 70°). CASE stimulation of the sciatic nerve at different amplitudes elicited significantly different cortical responses (p < 0.005) as demonstrated by somatosensory evoked potentials, recorded via micro-electrocorticography. CONCLUSIONS: The ability to elicit cortical responses from sciatic nerve stimulation demonstrates the proof of concept for both the implantation and chronic monitoring of CASE interfaces for innovative prosthetic control.

Stretchable, Patch-Type Calorie-Expenditure Measurement Device Based on Pop-Up Shaped Nanoscale Crack-Based Sensor.

Demands for precise health information tracking techniques are increasing, especially for daily dietry requirements to prevent obesity, diabetes, etc. Many commercially available sensors that detect dynamic motions of the body lack accuracy, while novel strain sensors at the research level mostly lack the capability to analyze measurements in real life conditions. Here, a stretchable, patch-type calorie expenditure measurement system is demonstrated that integrates an ultrasensitive crack-based strain sensor and Bluetooth-enabled wireless communication circuit to offer both accurate measurements and practical diagnosis of motion. The crack-based strain gauge transformed into a pop-up-shaped structure provides reliable measurements and broad range of strain (≈100%). Combined with the stretchable analysis circuit, the skin attachable tool translates variation of the knee flexion angle into calorie expenditure amount, using relative resistance change (R/R0 ) data from the flexible sensor. As signals from the knee joint angular movement translates velocity and walking/running behavior, the total amount of calorie expenditure is accurately analyzed. Finally, theoretical, experimental, and simulation analysis of signal stability, dynamic noises, and calorie expenditure calculation obtained from the device during exercise are demonstrated. For further applications, the devices are expected to be used in broader range of dynamic motion of the body for diagnosis of abnormalities and for rehabilitation.

Progress in the Field of Micro-Electrocorticography.

Since the 1940s electrocorticography (ECoG) devices and, more recently, in the last decade, micro-electrocorticography (µECoG) cortical electrode arrays were used for a wide set of experimental and clinical applications, such as epilepsy localization and brain⁻computer interface (BCI) technologies. Miniaturized implantable µECoG devices have the advantage of providing greater-density neural signal acquisition and stimulation capabilities in a minimally invasive fashion. An increased spatial resolution of the µECoG array will be useful for greater specificity diagnosis and treatment of neuronal diseases and the advancement of basic neuroscience and BCI research. In this review, recent achievements of ECoG and µECoG are discussed. The electrode configurations and varying material choices used to design µECoG arrays are discussed, including advantages and disadvantages of µECoG technology compared to electroencephalography (EEG), ECoG, and intracortical electrode arrays. Electrode materials that are the primary focus include platinum, iridium oxide, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT), indium tin oxide (ITO), and graphene. We discuss the biological immune response to µECoG devices compared to other electrode array types, the role of µECoG in clinical pathology, and brain⁻computer interface technology. The information presented in this review will be helpful to understand the current status, organize available knowledge, and guide future clinical and research applications of µECoG technologies.

Bioinspired Electronics for Artificial Sensory Systems.

Humans have a myriad of sensory receptors in different sense organs that form the five traditionally recognized senses of sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. These receptors detect diverse stimuli originating from the world and turn them into brain-interpretable electrical impulses for sensory cognitive processing, enabling us to communicate and socialize. Developments in biologically inspired electronics have led to the demonstration of a wide range of electronic sensors in all five traditional categories, with the potential to impact a broad spectrum of applications. Here, recent advances in bioinspired electronics that can function as potential artificial sensory systems, including prosthesis and humanoid robots are reviewed. The mechanisms and demonstrations in mimicking biological sensory systems are individually discussed and the remaining future challenges that must be solved for their versatile use are analyzed. Recent progress in bioinspired electronic sensors shows that the five traditional senses are successfully mimicked using novel electronic components and the performance regarding sensitivity, selectivity, and accuracy have improved to levels that outperform human sensory organs. Finally, neural interfacing techniques for connecting artificial sensors to the brain are discussed.

Single-neuronal cell culture and monitoring platform using a fully transparent microfluidic DEP device.

Dielectrophoresis using multi-electrode arrays allows a non-invasive interface with biological cells for long-term monitoring of electrophysiological parameters as well as a label-free and non-destructive technique for neuronal cell manipulation. However, experiments for neuronal cell manipulation utilizing dielectrophoresis have been constrained because dielectrophoresis devices generally function outside of the controlled environment (i.e. incubator) during the cell manipulation process, which is problematic because neurons are highly susceptible to the properties of the physiochemical environment. Furthermore, the conventional multi-electrode arrays designed to generate dielectrophoretic force are often fabricated with non-transparent materials that confound live-cell imaging. Here we present an advanced single-neuronal cell culture and monitoring platform using a fully transparent microfluidic dielectrophoresis device for the unabated monitoring of neuronal cell development and function. The device is mounted inside a sealed incubation chamber to ensure improved homeostatic conditions and reduced contamination risk. Consequently, we successfully trap and culture single neurons on a desired location and monitor their growth process over a week. The proposed single-neuronal cell culture and monitoring platform not only has significant potential to realize an in vitro ordered neuronal network, but also offers a useful tool for a wide range of neurological research and electrophysiological studies of neuronal networks.

3D Microstructured Scaffolds to Support Photoreceptor Polarization and Maturation.

Blinding disorders of the outer retina involve dysfunction and degeneration of photoreceptors. One potential approach to treat these forms of blindness is to repopulate the outer retina via a simple bolus injection of donor photoreceptors. However, this may not be ideal due to the highly polarized organization of photoreceptors that include apical light sensing photopigments and basal axon terminals. Furthermore, bolus injections create uncertainty with regard to the area, density, and retention of donor cells. Here, a novel and robust microfabrication process is developed to create 3D, micrometer-sized complex structures in ultrathin and biocompatible elastomer films (nonbiodegradable polydimethylsiloxane and biodegradable poly(glycerol-sebacate)) that can serve as polarizable photoreceptor delivery scaffolds, consisting of an array of cup-shaped photoreceptor capture wells that funnel into a microchannel. This "wine glass" scaffold design promotes efficient capture of human pluripotent stem-cell-derived photoreceptor cell bodies and guidance of basal axon extensions, ultimately achieving a uniform level of organization and polarization that is not possible with bolus injections or previously described scaffolds. In addition to future therapeutic applications, our scaffold design and materials provide a platform to generate reproducible and scalable in vitro models of photoreceptor-based diseases.

Photolithography-Based Nanopatterning Using Re-entrant Photoresist Profile.

Photolithography based on optical mask is widely used in academic research laboratories due to its low cost, simple mechanism, and ability to pattern in micron-sized features on a wafer-scale area. Because the resolution is bound by diffraction limits of the light source, nanoscale patterning using photolithography requires short-wavelength light source combined with sophisticated optical elements, adding complexity and cost. In this paper, a novel method of subwavelength patterning process using conventional i-line mercury lamp is introduced, without the use of such advanced optical tools. The method utilizes the re-entrant geometry of image reversal photoresist produced from the developing process, where a secondary mask is generated by isotropically depositing a metal layer to cover the re-entrant profile of the photoresist. Removing the photoresist by applying ultrasonic vibrations in acetone bath uniformly cracks the metal layer at the sidewalls of the re-entrant profile, exposing the substrate with a reduced feature size. The width of the initial mask pattern can be reduced by 400 nm in a controlled manner, regardless of the original width choice. As a result, the method is shown to achieve sub-100 nm scale linear patterns compatible for both subsequent deposition process and dry-etching process. Our approach is applicable to various shapes of the patterns and can be used in electronic device fabrication requiring nanoscale lithography patterning, such as the gate fabrication of AlGaN/GaN high-electron-mobility transistor.

Origami silicon optoelectronics for hemispherical electronic eye systems.

Digital image sensors in hemispherical geometries offer unique imaging advantages over their planar counterparts, such as wide field of view and low aberrations. Deforming miniature semiconductor-based sensors with high-spatial resolution into such format is challenging. Here we report a simple origami approach for fabricating single-crystalline silicon-based focal plane arrays and artificial compound eyes that have hemisphere-like structures. Convex isogonal polyhedral concepts allow certain combinations of polygons to fold into spherical formats. Using each polygon block as a sensor pixel, the silicon-based devices are shaped into maps of truncated icosahedron and fabricated on flexible sheets and further folded either into a concave or convex hemisphere. These two electronic eye prototypes represent simple and low-cost methods as well as flexible optimization parameters in terms of pixel density and design. Results demonstrated in this work combined with miniature size and simplicity of the design establish practical technology for integration with conventional electronic devices.

High-performance green flexible electronics based on biodegradable cellulose nanofibril paper.

Today's consumer electronics, such as cell phones, tablets and other portable electronic devices, are typically made of non-renewable, non-biodegradable, and sometimes potentially toxic (for example, gallium arsenide) materials. These consumer electronics are frequently upgraded or discarded, leading to serious environmental contamination. Thus, electronic systems consisting of renewable and biodegradable materials and minimal amount of potentially toxic materials are desirable. Here we report high-performance flexible microwave and digital electronics that consume the smallest amount of potentially toxic materials on biobased, biodegradable and flexible cellulose nanofibril papers. Furthermore, we demonstrate gallium arsenide microwave devices, the consumer wireless workhorse, in a transferrable thin-film form. Successful fabrication of key electrical components on the flexible cellulose nanofibril paper with comparable performance to their rigid counterparts and clear demonstration of fungal biodegradation of the cellulose-nanofibril-based electronics suggest that it is feasible to fabricate high-performance flexible electronics using ecofriendly materials.