Sun-induced fluorescence - a new probe of photosynthesis: First maps from the imaging spectrometer HyPlant.

Variations in photosynthesis still cause substantial uncertainties in predicting photosynthetic CO2 uptake rates and monitoring plant stress. Changes in actual photosynthesis that are not related to greenness of vegetation are difficult to measure by reflectance based optical remote sensing techniques. Several activities are underway to evaluate the sun-induced fluorescence signal on the ground and on a coarse spatial scale using space-borne imaging spectrometers. Intermediate-scale observations using airborne-based imaging spectroscopy, which are critical to bridge the existing gap between small-scale field studies and global observations, are still insufficient. Here we present the first validated maps of sun-induced fluorescence in that critical, intermediate spatial resolution, employing the novel airborne imaging spectrometer HyPlant. HyPlant has an unprecedented spectral resolution, which allows for the first time quantifying sun-induced fluorescence fluxes in physical units according to the Fraunhofer Line Depth Principle that exploits solar and atmospheric absorption bands. Maps of sun-induced fluorescence show a large spatial variability between different vegetation types, which complement classical remote sensing approaches. Different crop types largely differ in emitting fluorescence that additionally changes within the seasonal cycle and thus may be related to the seasonal activation and deactivation of the photosynthetic machinery. We argue that sun-induced fluorescence emission is related to two processes: (i) the total absorbed radiation by photosynthetically active chlorophyll; and (ii) the functional status of actual photosynthesis and vegetation stress.

Fusarium avenaceum causes burn spot disease syndrome in noble crayfish (Astacus astacus).

Burn spot disease has been causing epidemics both in the Estonian mainland and in Saaremaa Island in the threatened noble crayfish (Astacus astacus) stocks. To study the cause of the disease, we isolated several Fusarium spp. from Estonian noble crayfish (A. astacus) populations suffering from burn spot disease syndrome. We first identified fungi directly from melanised cuticle by their ITS sequences. Then we isolated Fusarium spp. from melanised spots of crayfish showing burn spot disease symptoms, such as melanisation and shell erosion, from two different crayfish populations and watercourses in Estonia. The isolates were then identified based on ITS and EF1α-gene sequences. Isolates of Fusarium spp. taken from two separate Estonian noble crayfish populations were used in infection studies. Koch postulates confirmed that the studied agent was causing burn spot disease symptoms including shell erosion in the noble crayfish, which were significantly more severe after molts. After the infection period, an identical Fusarium spp. was re-isolated from carapace lesions and was thus shown to be the disease agent causing burn spot disease syndrome and shell erosion in noble crayfish. Based on GenBank database searches, the isolates causing burn spot disease symptoms were identified as Fusarium avenaceum in mainland Estonia and F. solani in Saaremaa crayfish.

Timing and quantifying Aphanomyces astaci sporulation from the noble crayfish suffering from the crayfish plague.

Aphanomyces astaci sporulation is crucial for the spreading potential of this disease agent. For the first time, we are reporting timing and quantity of A. astaci spores released from noble crayfish (Astacus astacus) suffering from crayfish plague under practical aquatic conditions. We infected nine noble crayfish with A. astaci PsI-genotype and maintained them in individual 8L tanks. Spores (zoospores and cysts) were quantified from water samples (3 × 1 mL) taken every 12h over 10 d using A. astaci specific qPCR. A clear sporulation trend was found, together with a high individual spore estimate variation. The median spore counts from two days before death to 12h post mortem were from ~500 to ~2000 spores L(-1). A significant sporulation increase occurred after 24h post mortem (~12,000 spores L(-1)) and reached a peak after two days (~65,000 spores L(-1)) before declining to or below pre mortem levels from the fourth day. The single most sporulating crayfish released from ~75,000 to ~400,000 spores L(-1) during the mass sporulating period, yielding a maximum estimate of ~3,200,000 spores released from a single crayfish if we assume homogeneous spore distribution. The results confirm a mass A. astaci spore release from moribund and recently dead infected noble crayfish, with a sporulation peak one to three days post mortem. The acute crayfish mortality only three days after zoospore exposure confirm the lethal potential of the PsI-genotype. The powerful sporulation potential observed here may be one of the key virulence factors of this genotype.

Differing virulence of Aphanomyces astaci isolates and elevated resistance of noble crayfish Astacus astacus against crayfish plague.

Crayfish plague epidemics (caused by Aphanomyces astaci) have been causing population collapses among native European crayfish stocks since the late 1800s. Recent indirect and direct evidence has shown that its virulence has been variable, with native European crayfish even acting as carriers. We tested the differences in A. astaci virulence under experimental conditions using both PsI- and As-genotypes with 3 Finnish noble crayfish Astacus astacus populations. We infected crayfish with adjusted quantities of A. astaci zoospores and monitored the symptoms and mortality of the crayfish. The PsI-genotype isolate caused rapid and total mortality among the tested populations, while the As-genotype isolates expressed more variable virulence. In some cases, mortality among the As-genotype-infected crayfish did not exceed the mortality level of the control group. All of the tested noble crayfish stocks showed lower mortality towards the As-genotype of A. astaci isolated from the River Kemijoki epidemic. We conclude that there are clear differences in virulence between different A. astaci genotypes and also differences in virulence within As-genotypes. Furthermore, we observed clear signs of increased resistance in different populations of noble crayfish towards some of the tested strains belonging to the As-genotype of A. astaci.

Systemic immunoresponses in mice after repeated exposure of lungs to spores of Streptomyces californicus.

Microbial growth in moisture-damaged buildings is associated with respiratory and other symptoms in the occupants. Streptomyces spp. are frequently isolated from such buildings. In the present study, we evaluated the responses of mice after repeated exposure to spores of Streptomyces californicus. Mice were exposed via intratracheal instillation to six doses (at 7-day intervals) of the spores of S. californicus, originally isolated from the indoor air of a moisture-damaged building, at three dose levels (2 x 10(3), 2 x 10(5), and 2 x 10(7) spores). Inflammation and toxicity, including changes in cell populations in the lungs, lymph nodes, and spleen, were evaluated 24 h after the last dosage. The exposure provoked a dose-dependent inflammatory cell response, as detected by the intense recruitment of neutrophils, but the numbers of macrophages and lymphocytes in the airways also increased. The cellular responses corresponded to the dose-dependent increases in inflammation- and cytotoxicity-associated biochemical markers (i.e., levels of albumin, total protein, and lactate dehydrogenase) in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. The spore exposure increased the number of both activated and nonactivated T lymphocytes. Also, the amounts of CD3(-) CD4(-) and unconventional CD3(-) CD4(+) lymphocytes in the lung tissue were augmented. Interestingly, the spore exposure decreased cells in the spleen. This effect was strongest at the dose of 2 x 10(5) spores. These results indicate that the spores of S. californicus are capable of provoking both immunostimulation in lungs (inflammation) and systemic immunotoxicity, especially in the spleen. The immunotoxic effect resembled that caused by chemotherapeutic agents, originally isolated from Streptomyces spp. Thus, S. californicus must be considered a microbial species with potential to cause systemic adverse health effects in occupants of moisture-damaged buildings.

Comparison of mycobacteria-induced cytotoxicity and inflammatory responses in human and mouse cell lines.

Environmental mycobacteria, which are ubiquitous in nature, are also detected in moisture-damaged buildings. Their potential role inducing the adverse health effects associated with living in moisture damaged buildings requires clarification. To establish a model for these studies, we evaluated inflammatory responsiveness in different cell lines exposed to environmental mycobacterial species. Four mycobacterial isolates belonging to Mycobacterium avium complex and Mycobacterium terrae, recovered from the indoor air sampled when a moldy building was being demolished, were studied for their cytotoxicity and ability to stimulate the production of inflammatory mediators in mouse RAW264.7 and human 28SC macrophage cell lines, and human A549 lung epithelial cell line. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was used as a positive control. Production of cytokines (tumor necrosis factor alpha, TNF-alpha; interleukin 6, IL-6; and interleukin beta, IL-1beta) was analyzed immunochemically, nitric oxide (NO) by the Griess method, expression of inducible NO synthase with Western blot analysis, and cytotoxicity with the MTT test. Both human and mouse cells produced NO and IL-6 after mycobacterial exposure. Mouse macrophages also showed production of TNF-alpha induced by both mycobacteria and LPS, whereas the human cell lines failed to produce TNF-alpha after mycobacterial exposure and the human epithelial cell line also failed to respond to LPS. Similarly, only mouse macrophages produced IL-1beta. Mycobacterial exposure was not cytotoxic to human cells and was only slightly cytotoxic to mouse macrophages. The results indicate that environmental mycobacterial isolates from moldy buildings are capable of activating inflammatory mechanisms in both human and murine cells. The human and mouse cell lines, however, differ significantly in the grade and type of the responses.

Future police operations and non-lethal weapons.

Society has entrusted the police with power and obligation to enforce law, maintain order and protect its members and the legal order of society. To be able to fulfil these obligations the police need credible means of countering threats against these values. Selecting the weapons, or rather use of force instruments, presents a multifaceted problem of balancing human considerations, judicial and societal requirements with tactical needs and technological possibilities. No matter what the incident is, a police-officer is expected to protect the innocent, him/herself, colleagues and the object persons and to cause no more harm than is justifiable and unavoidable. Unfortunately there is no safe use of force and in real life the only option available for resolving certain conflicts is some degree of force. Any weapon can be misused but most weapons have a legitimate use. Denying legitimate use, as well as allowing uncontrolled use, may lead to unnecessary suffering and loss of life. Technology is offering interesting alternative possibilities to the police and these must be considered with open eyes, bearing in mind that misuse, like torture, is not a property inherent to technology but an intentional behaviour of some people. Thorough research and fair and credible controls on police weaponry are needed to avert the possibility of misuse and to maintain trust.

Inflammatory responses in mice after intratracheal instillation of spores of Streptomyces californicus isolated from indoor air of a moldy building.

Microbial growth in buildings is associated with respiratory symptoms in the occupants. However, the specific effects of the microbes and the way they provoke clinical manifestations are poorly understood. In the current study, mice were exposed via intratracheal instillation to single doses of the spores of Streptomyces californicus, isolated from indoor air of a moisture-damaged building (2.2 x 10(7), 1.1 x 10(8), and 3.3 x 10(8) spores), or lipopolysaccharide (50 microg). Inflammation and toxicity in lungs were evaluated 24 h later. The time course of the effects was explored with the dose of 1.1 x 10(8) spores for up to 7 days. The microbial spores elevated proinflammatory cytokine (i.e., TNFalpha and IL-6) levels in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and in serum in a dose- and time-dependent manner and evoked expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase in BAL cells. Both TNFalpha and IL-6 responses peaked at 6 h after instillation, but TNFalpha leveled off more quickly than IL-6. The cytokine surge was followed by inflammatory cell recruitment into airways. Moreover, the spores increased dose- and time-dependently total protein, albumin, hemoglobin, and lactate dehydrogenase concentrations in BALF during the first 24 h. Histopathological examination of lungs confirmed the inflammatory changes. With the exception of macrophage and lymphocyte numbers, all parameters returned to control level at 7 days. In summary, these observations indicate that the spores of S. californicus are capable of provoking an acute inflammation in mouse lungs and can cause cytotoxicity. Thus, S. californicus can be considered as a species with potential to cause adverse health effects in occupants of moisture-damaged buildings.

Streptomyces anulatus from indoor air of moldy houses induce NO and IL-6 production in a human alveolar epithelial cell-line.

Moisture associated microbial growth in buildings may cause respiratory symptoms such as pulmonary inflammation. We studied the effects of spores of Streptomyces anulatus, commonly found in moldy buildings, on the production of nitric oxide (NO), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-5 (IL-5), interleukin-4 (IL-4), and tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), as well as cell viability in human alveolar II type epithelial cell line (A549). Cells were exposed in vitro to S. anulatus spores with and without interferon-γ (IFNγ) in vitro. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was used as a reference substance. S. anulatus alone, and in combination with IFNγ induced NO and IL-6 production and decreased cell viability whereas IL-4, IL-5 or TNFα production were not affected. IFNγ alone had a weaker but otherwise similar effect as S. anulatus on NO and IL-6 production and it potentiated the effects of S. anulatus. LPS did not induce NO or cytokine production, or affect cell viability in A549 cells. These data indicate that spores of S. anulatus induce the excretion of inflammatory mediators in respiratory epithelial cells, which may partly explain the adverse respiratory health effects experienced by individuals exposed to the indoor air of moldy houses.

Recall of awareness during cardiac anaesthesia: influence of feedback information to the anaesthesiologist.

We interviewed 303 cardiac surgery patients to evaluate the incidence of intraoperative awareness with recall. First, we randomly interviewed 99 patients, of whom four patients (4%) reported awareness and recall. We informed the cardiac anaesthesiologists of the results of these interviews, and we also gave general information regarding means to reduce awareness and recall during general anaesthesia. Thereafter, we interviewed 204 consecutive cardiac surgery patients. Now, three of the patients (1.5%) had intraoperative awareness with recall. The reduction in the incidence from 4% to 1.5% was not significant. However, the doses of principal anaesthetic drugs had increased significantly between the two interview phases, while the dose of pancuronium, the main muscle relaxant used, had decreased significantly. Also, there was a significant increase in the number of anaesthesias where anaesthetic agents had been administered continuously instead of bolus or non-continuous dosing techniques. Between the patients with awareness and recall and those without it, there was no difference in the doses of anaesthetic agents given. The patients with awareness were significantly younger than those not aware. In conclusion, with educational measures and vigilance over the problem, the incidence of intraoperative awareness during cardiac anaesthesia may be reduced. The incidence figure of 1.5% we observed is of the magnitude reported recently by others with modern cardiac anaesthesia techniques.

Familial undulatory nystagmus in Ayrshire bulls in Finland.

The article describes a familial, undulatory nystagmus in Finnish Ayrshire bulls. The nystagmus appeared as a high-frequency tremor with a small amplitude and it was similar in both eyes. The vision didn't seem to be affected. In three of the affected five bulls a slight paramyoclonia posterior ('stretches') was also noticed. A histological examination of the vestibular nuclei with the adjacent brain area revealed no abnormalities. The pedigree of the bulls suggests a recessive autosomal inheritance.

Serum lipids and proteins in lactose malabsorption.

It has been suggested that dietary lactose may reduce the intestinal absorption of fat and protein in individuals with lactase deficiency. On the other hand, it is known that a high carbohydrate diet increases serum lipids. The purpose of this study was to examine whether there are differences in the fasting serum lipid and protein concentrations between people with lactose malabsorption and people with normal lactose absorption. Therefore in the connection of a family study serum lipids and proteins were measured in 409 subjects belonging to 11 families. Of these 288 were relatives of the 11 index persons and 121 were spouses or relatives of the spouses. The weight, height, and milk consumption of each person were recorded. When the age, sex, relative weight and milk consumption effects were taken into account there was a statistical difference between the lactose malabsorption and lactose absorption groups for the concentration of serum triglycerides, but not for the other variables. Besides, serum triglyceride values of over 200 mg/100 ml were significantly fewer in people with lactose malabsorption. It was hypothesized that increased intestinal motility may disturb the absorption of fats and cause the observed difference at least in the Finnish population.

The functional state of the gastrointestinal tract after ulcer surgery. A ten-year prospective follow-up study.

Of 35 patients operated upon for peptic ulcer and subjected to absorption tests before operation, 26 could be followed up with absorption tests for 1, 6, and 10 years after operation. The following operations had been performed on the latter: antrectomy with gastroduodenostomy in 10, antrectomy with selective vagotomy and gastroduodenostomy in 9, and other operations in 7. None had recurrence of the ulcer or disturbing abdominal complaints during the follow-up period. Ten years after operation there was an increase in the mean value of the Schilling test, and all patients had a normal serum B12 vitamin level. On the other hand, a decrease was noticed in the mean value of the d-xylose test and an increase in that of faecal dry-weight fat content. At the time of the 10th year follow-up examination, 6 patients had an impaired d-xylose absorption and 7 an impaired fat absorption. According to the increase in the mean body weight and the serum protein and haemoglobin concentration, the nutritional status had not worsened.

Etiological factors in osteochondritis dissecans. An experimental study into the etiological factors in osteochondritis dissecans in the canine humeral head using overloading with and without somatotropin and thyrotropin hormone treatment and mechanical trauma.

The overloaded humeral heads of the six growing Labrador retrievers treated with somatotropin and thyrotropin hormone showed the most pronounced changes of the articular cartilage and subchondral home, resembling changes in the early stage of spontaneous osteochondritis dissecans. The overloading alone used in 16 dogs without hormone treatment produced no changes, except that two Labrador retrievers showed increased radiodensity subchondrally during the first 4-6 weeks of the observation period. The mechanical traumas of the articular cartilage and the epiphyseal bone regenerated and did not result in changes resembling those of spontaneous osteochondritis dissecans.

Drug absorption in patients with T-tube after cholecystectomy.

The influence of bile flow on the absorption of tetracycline, doxycycline, sulphadimidine and cycloserine was studied in 13 volunteer patients with t-tubes in their main bile ducts after biliary surgery. Their hepatic functions and bile flows were estimated by giving I131 radioiodinated rose-bengal intravenously. About 80% radioactive tracer was recovered from the bile when the t-tube was open, so most of the bile was diverted outside the intestinal tract. Up to 4 hours after administration serum tetracycline levels were lower when the t-tube was open than when the t-tube was closed. In one patient the serum levels were so much reduced that therapeutic serum tetracycline levels could not be achieved. The serum doxycycline levels were fairly high and bile flow did not have any effect on absorption. The 24-hour biliary excretion of doxycycline was only about 15% of the urinary excretion. The absorption of sulphadimidine and cycloserine was not affected by the presence or absence of bile. The bile salts are important surfactants in man, and modify the absorption rate of tetracycline, but not of doxycycline, sulphadimidine and cycloserine. Even in the absence of intact bile flow therapeutic serum tetracycline levels can be expected with the doses currently used.

Effect of gastric surgery on the gastrointestinal drug absorption in man.

The effect of gastric surgery on the absorption of quinidine, ethambutol, and sulphafurazole was studied in 14 male patients, all serving as their own controls. Antrectomy with gastroduodenostomy (ABI) and selective vagotomy lowered the serum levels of all drugs significantly during the 6-hour test period. Excretion of drugs in 6-hour urine also decreased. Three patients showed practically no absorption up to 2 hours, and even therafter the absorption was lowered. Over one year after operation the urinary excretion of ethambutol, but not of the other drugs, was improved. ABI alone did not modify absorption. Preoperative gastric retention seemed to delay absorption.

Aggression in general-hospital patients.

The Buss-Durkee Inventory (BDI) rating for measuring aggression was performed on 125 consecutive female patients admitted to a general hospital. The test scores of different diagnostic groups were all on a intermediate level, and with the exception of slightly lower scores in patients with blood disorders, only few differences statistical significance were observed. The factor analysis of the test results revealed three factors: in addition to aggression factor (I) and hostility factor (II) a factor called remorse factor (III) was identified. The patient groups divided according to their medical diagnoses showed no differences with regard to these factors. The variance of factor scores could not be explained by such background variables as social class, marital status or domicile. There was, however, a highly significant negative correlation (-0.33) between age and the aggression factor. Finally, the concept of suppressed aggression and hostility and the role of aggression dynamics in the development of organic illness is discussed.