Synthetic Cannabinoid Identification in Cases Associated with Blue Lotus and Valerian Root.

Synthetic cannabinoids emerged in the early 21st century and have continued to evolve and flourish to present day. Like other novel psychoactive substances (NPS), synthetic cannabinoids have been sold under the guise of legitimate products. Some examples include "potpourri," "incense," and herbal material. Between May 2020 and December 2023, Drug Chemistry Lab (Chem Lab) received 29 seized drug cases mentioning "blue lotus" or "valerian root." In 90% of these cases, at least one exhibit contained one or more synthetic cannabinoids. During the same timeframe, Toxicology Lab (Tox Lab) received 65 toxicology cases that contained synthetic cannabinoids and/or their corresponding hydrolyzed metabolites where case history mentioned "blue lotus." The most frequently observed compounds between laboratories were 5F-MDMB-PICA, ADB-BUTINACA, and MDMB-4en-PINACA. Innocuous branding and marketing may deceive law enforcement, investigators, and healthcare providers into believing that the adverse effects of erratic behavior, sedation, slurred speech, and hallucinations are a result of toxicity from botanical extracts (e.g., apomorphine and nuciferine in blue lotus). Due to the dangerous nature of these NPS, it is recommended that synthetic cannabinoid screening is performed on all cases where there is suspected use of vaping products suggested to contain "blue lotus" or "valerian root" as drug vendors continue to conceal the presence of these compounds.

Modification of a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method targeting lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and its primary metabolite (OH-LSD) to include nine LSD analogs.

A variety of LSD analogs have emerged in recent years with dual purposes of avoiding prosecution from possession while providing new options for those willing to experiment with hallucinogenic drugs. In this study, a previously published automated sample preparation method for LSD and its primary metabolite (OH-LSD) was utilized to extract LSD, OH-LSD, and nine LSD analogs from urine. The liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method was modified from the previously published LC conditions to utilize a different analytical column and gradient elution program. Mobile phases of 10 mM ammonium formate with 0.1% formic acid in deionized water (mobile phase A) and 0.1% formic acid in methanol (mobile phase B) were employed. The method was validated to ANSI/ASB Standard 036 with a 0.1 ng/mL limit of detection for all analytes and was utilized for the analysis of 325 urine specimens. Although no LSD analogs were observed in the samples analyzed, this validated method was demonstrated to be suitable for the analysis of these compounds in laboratories seeking to expand their testing scope. Automated sample preparation allows for the efficient analysis of these analytically challenging compounds with minimal manual handling. Additionally, there was no increased analytical time burden when the LC column and gradient were modified to target nine additional analytes. Detection may improve as new reference standards are developed to allow laboratories to focus on the metabolic products of these analogs. For now, this validated procedure can assist with the routine analysis and surveillance of these emerging substances.

Cross-reactivity of 24 cannabinoids and metabolites in blood using the Immunalysis Cannabinoids Direct enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

With wider availability of synthetic and semi-synthetic cannabinoids in the consumer space, there is a growing impact on public health and safety. Forensic toxicology laboratories should keep these compounds in mind as they attempt to remain effective in screening for potential sources of human performance impairment. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is a commonly utilized tool in forensic toxicology, as its efficiency and sensitivity make it useful for rapid and easy screening for a large number of drugs. This screening technique has lower specificity, which allows for broad cross-reactivity among structurally similar compounds. In this study, the Cannabinoids Direct ELISA kit from Immunalysis was utilized to assess the cross-reactivities of 24 cannabinoids and metabolites in whole blood. The assay was calibrated with 5 ng/mL of 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and the analytes of interest were evaluated at concentrations ranging from 5 to 500 ng/mL. Most parent compounds demonstrated cross-reactivity ≥20 ng/mL, with increasing alkyl side-chain length relative to Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol resulting in decreased cross-reactivity. Of the 24 analytes, only the carboxylic acid metabolites, 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ8-tetrahydrocannabinol, 11-nor-9(R)-carboxy-hexahydrocannabinol and 11-nor-9(S)-carboxy-hexahydrocannabinol, were cross-reactive at levels ≤10 ng/mL. Interestingly, 11-nor-9(R)-carboxy-hexahydrocannabinol demonstrated cross-reactivity at 5 ng/mL, where its stereoisomer 11-nor-9(S)-carboxy-hexahydrocannabinol, did not. As more information emerges about the prevalence of these analytes in blood specimens, it is important to understand and characterize their impact on current testing paradigms.

Automated extraction and LC-MS-MS analysis of 11-nor-9-carboxy-tetrahydrocannabinol isomers and prevalence in authentic urine specimens.

11-Nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THCCOOH) is the most frequently detected illicit drug metabolite in the military drug testing program. An increasing number of specimens containing unresolved Δ8-THCCOOH prompted the addition of this analyte to the Department of Defense drug testing panel. A method was developed and validated for the quantitative confirmation of the carboxylated metabolites of Δ8- and Δ9-THC in urine samples utilizing automated pipette tip dispersive solid-phase extraction and analysis by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS). Analytes were separated isocratically over an 8.5-min runtime and detected on an MS-MS equipped with an electrospray ionization source operated in negative mode. A single point calibrator (15 ng/mL) forced through zero demonstrated linearity from 3 to 1,000 ng/mL. Intra- and inter-day precision were ≤9.1%, and bias was within ±14.1% for Δ8-THCCOOH and Δ9-THCCOOH. No interferences were found after challenging the method with different over-the-counter drugs, prescription pharmaceuticals, drugs of abuse and several cannabinoids and cannabinoid metabolites, including Δ10-THCCOOH. Urine specimens presumptively positive by immunoassay (n = 2,939; 50 ng/mL Δ9-THCCOOH cutoff) were confirmed with this analytical method. Δ8-THCCOOH and Δ9-THCCOOH were present together above the 15 ng/mL cutoff in 33% of specimens. However, nearly one-third of the specimens analyzed were positive for Δ8-THCCOOH only. This manuscript describes the first validated automated extraction and confirmation method for Δ8- and Δ9-THCCOOH in urine that provides adequate analyte separation in urine specimens with extreme isomer abundance ratios.

Screening and confirmation of psilocin, mitragynine, phencyclidine, ketamine and ketamine metabolites by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.

A safe and productive workplace requires a sober workforce, free from substances that impair judgment and concentration. Although drug monitoring programs already exist, the scope and loopholes of standard workplace testing panels are well known, allowing other substances to remain a source of risk. Therefore, a high-throughput urine screening method for psilocin, mitragynine, phencyclidine, ketamine, norketamine and dehydronorketamine was developed and validated in conjunction with a urine and blood confirmation method. There are analytical challenges to overcome with psilocin and mitragynine, particularly when it comes to drug stability and unambiguous identification in authentic specimens. Screening and confirmation methods were validated according to the American National Standards Institute/Academy Standards Board (ANSI/ASB) Standard 036, Standard Practices for Method Validation in Forensic Toxicology. An automated liquid handling system equipped with dispersive pipette extraction tips was utilized for preparing screening samples, whereas an offline solid-phase extraction method was used for confirmation sample preparation. Both methods utilized liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry to achieve limits of detection between 1-5 ng/mL for the screening method and 1 ng/mL for the confirmation method. Automation allows for faster throughput and enhanced quality assurance, which improves turnaround time. Compared to previous in-house methods, specimen volumes were substantially decreased for both blood and urine, which is an advantage when volume is limited. This screening technique is well suited for evaluating large numbers of specimens from those employed in safety-sensitive workforce positions. This method can be utilized by workplace drug testing, human performance and postmortem laboratories seeking robust qualitative screening and confirmation methods for analytes that have traditionally been challenging to routinely analyze.

Quantitative Analysis of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide and Metabolite in Urine by Automated Extraction and Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry.

Recently, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) has become a resurgent drug of abuse. The detection of LSD is problematic because of the low dosage taken by users, light and heat sensitivity of the analyte and the lack of efficient analytical methods. Presented here is the validation of an automated sample preparation method for the analysis of LSD and its primary urinary metabolite, 2-oxo-3-hydroxy-LSD (OHLSD), in urine samples by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Analytes were extracted from urine using an automated Dispersive Pipette XTRaction method on Hamilton STAR and STARlet liquid handling systems. The limit of detection for both analytes was administratively defined at the lowest calibrator used in the experiments, and the limit of quantitation was 0.05 ng/mL for both analytes. All validation criteria were acceptable per Department of Defense Instruction 1010.16 requirements. This method offers an efficient, sensitive analytical solution to routinely evaluate large numbers of urine specimens for LSD in workplace drug deterrence programs.

An Enhanced LC-MS-MS Technique for Distinguishing Δ8- and Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol Isomers in Blood and Urine Specimens.

Among the abundance of cannabinoids identified in cannabis, the active parent drug, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), and its oxidized metabolite, 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-THC (Δ9-THCCOOH), are attractive analytical targets to detect cannabis use. More recently, confirmation of these analytes may be hindered by a related interfering compound. Forensic toxicology laboratories attribute this phenomenon to an increase in cases containing Δ8-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ8-THC) and 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ8-THC (Δ8-THCCOOH). It is technically challenging to chromatographically resolve and accurately quantify Δ8- and Δ9-THC and THCCOOH in toxicology specimens due to their structural resemblance. This study describes a validated method to resolve and quantify active Δ8-THC and Δ9-THC in blood while qualitatively confirming the inactive metabolites Δ8-THCCOOH and Δ9-THCCOOH in blood and urine. Analytes are extracted and concentrated by solid-phase extraction and analyzed by liquid chromatography--electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry, which is amenable to modern toxicology laboratory routine workflows. This procedure offers a clear solution to untangling mixtures of these isomers, particularly in cases where Δ8-THC and its metabolite are the sole or dominant form.

Screening and confirmation methods for the qualitative identification of nine phytocannabinoids in urine by LC-MS/MS.

Qualitative liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) methods were developed and validated to screen and confirm the presence of nine phytocannabinoids in urine. The nine phytocannabinoids targeted in the methods included Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 11-hydroxy-THC, 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC, cannabidiol, 7-carboxy cannabidiol, cannabinol, cannabigerol, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), and 11-nor-9-carboxy-THCV. The methods presented use a rapid, single-step enzymatic hydrolysis followed by solid-phase extraction and LC-MS/MS analysis. Limits of detection were established at 1 µg/L for non-carboxylated analytes and 5 µg/L for carboxylated analytes. The screening and confirmation methods were validated and implemented in the analysis of authentic case samples. These methods can assist forensic, medicolegal, or medical compliance investigations as the presence of phytocannabinoids, or lack there-of, may be used to help differentiate cannabis (hemp, marijuana) use from synthetic THC (dronabinol) exposure.

Identifying and Quantifying Cannabinoids in Biological Matrices in the Medical and Legal Cannabis Era.

BACKGROUND: Cannabinoid analyses generally included, until recently, the primary psychoactive cannabis compound, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and/or its inactive metabolite, 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC, in blood, plasma, and urine. Technological advances revolutionized the analyses of major and minor phytocannabinoids in diverse biological fluids and tissues. An extensive literature search was conducted in PubMed for articles on cannabinoid analyses from 2000 through 2019. References in acquired manuscripts were also searched for additional articles. CONTENT: This article summarizes analytical methodologies for identification and quantification of multiple phytocannabinoids (including THC, cannabidiol, cannabigerol, and cannabichromene) and their precursors and/or metabolites in blood, plasma, serum, urine, oral fluid, hair, breath, sweat, dried blood spots, postmortem matrices, breast milk, meconium, and umbilical cord since the year 2000. Tables of nearly 200 studies outline parameters including analytes, specimen volume, instrumentation, and limits of quantification. Important diagnostic and interpretative challenges of cannabinoid analyses are also described. Medicalization and legalization of cannabis and the 2018 Agricultural Improvement Act increased demand for cannabinoid analyses for therapeutic drug monitoring, emergency toxicology, workplace and pain-management drug testing programs, and clinical and forensic toxicology applications. This demand is expected to intensify in the near future, with advances in instrumentation performance, increasing LC-MS/MS availability in clinical and forensic toxicology laboratories, and the ever-expanding knowledge of the potential therapeutic use and toxicity of phytocannabinoids. SUMMARY: Cannabinoid analyses and data interpretation are complex; however, major and minor phytocannabinoid detection windows and expected concentration ranges in diverse biological matrices improve the interpretation of cannabinoid test results.

Extended plasma cannabinoid excretion in chronic frequent cannabis smokers during sustained abstinence and correlation with psychomotor performance.

Cannabis smoking increases motor vehicle accident risk. Empirically defined cannabinoid detection windows are important to drugged driving legislation. Our aims were to establish plasma cannabinoid detection windows in frequent cannabis smokers and to determine if residual cannabinoid concentrations were correlated with psychomotor performance. Twenty-eight male chronic frequent cannabis smokers resided on a secure research unit for up to 33 days with daily blood collection. Plasma specimens were analyzed for Δ(9) -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 11-hydroxy-THC (11-OH-THC), and 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THCCOOH) by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Critical tracking and divided attention tasks were administered at baseline (after overnight stay to ensure lack of acute intoxication) and after 1, 2, and 3 weeks of cannabis abstinence. Twenty-seven of the twenty-eight participants were THC-positive at admission (median 4.2 µg/L). THC concentrations significantly decreased 24 h after admission, but were still ≥2 µg/L in 16 of the 28 participants 48 h after admission. THC was detected in 3 of 5 specimens on day 30. The last positive 11-OH-THC specimen was 15 days after admission. THCCOOH was measureable in 4 of 5 participants after 30 days of abstinence. Years of prior cannabis use significantly correlated with THC concentrations on admission, and days 7 and 14. Tracking error, evaluated by the Divided Attention Task, was the only evaluated psychomotor assessment significantly correlated with cannabinoid concentrations at baseline and day 8 (11-OH-THC only). Median THC was 0.3 µg/L in 5 chronic frequent cannabis smokers' plasma samples after 30 days of sustained abstinence. Published 2015. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.

Cannabis withdrawal in chronic, frequent cannabis smokers during sustained abstinence within a closed residential environment.

OBJECTIVES: Chronic, frequent cannabis smokers may experience residual and offset effects, withdrawal, and craving when abstaining from the drug. We characterized the prevalence, duration, and intensity of these effects in chronic frequent cannabis smokers during abstinence on a closed research unit. METHODS: Non-treatment-seeking participants (N = 29 on admission, 66% and 34% remaining after 2 and 4 weeks) provided subjective effects data. A battery of five instruments was computer-administered daily to measure psychological, sensory, and physical symptoms associated with cannabinoid intoxication and withdrawal. Plasma and oral fluid specimens were concurrently collected and analyzed for cannabinoids. Outcome variables were evaluated as change from admission (Day 0) with regression models. RESULTS: Most abstinence effects, including irritability and anxiety were greatest on Days 0-3 and decreased thereafter. Cannabis craving significantly decreased over time, whereas decreased appetite began to normalize on Day 4. Strange dreams and difficulty getting to sleep increased over time, suggesting intrinsic sleep problems in chronic cannabis smokers. Symptoms likely induced by residual drug effects were at maximum intensity on admission and positively correlated with plasma and oral fluid cannabinoid concentrations on admission but not afterward; these symptoms showed overall prevalence higher than cannabis withdrawal symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: The combined influence of residual/offset drug effects, withdrawal, and craving was observed in chronic cannabis smokers during monitored abstinence. Abstinence symptoms were generally more intense in the initial phase, implying importance of early intervention in cannabis quit attempts. Sleep disturbance persisting for an extended period suggests that hypnotic medications could be beneficial in treating cannabis dependence.

Impact of prolonged cannabinoid excretion in chronic daily cannabis smokers' blood on per se drugged driving laws.

BACKGROUND: Cannabis is the illicit drug most frequently reported with impaired driving and motor vehicle accidents. Some "per se" laws make it illegal to drive with any amount of drug in the body, while others establish blood, saliva, or urine concentrations above which it is illegal to drive. The persistence of Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in chronic daily cannabis smokers' blood is unknown. METHODS: Thirty male chronic daily cannabis smokers resided on a secure research unit for up to 33 days, with daily blood collection. Samples were processed in an ice bath during sample preparation to minimize cannabinoid adsorption onto precipitant material. We quantified THC by 2-dimensional GC-MS. RESULTS: Of the 30 participants, 27 were THC-positive on admission, with a median (range) concentration of 1.4 µg/L (0.3-6.3). THC decreased gradually; only 1 of 11 participants was negative at 26 days, 2 of 5 remained THC-positive (0.3 µg/L) for 30 days, and 5.0% of participants had THC ≥ 1.0 µg/L for 12 days. Median 11-hydroxy-THC concentrations were 1.1 µg/L on admission, with no results ≥ 1.0 µg/L 24 h later. 11-Nor-9-carboxy-THC (THCCOOH) detection rates were 96.7% on admission, decreasing slowly to 95.7% and 85.7% on days 8 and 22, respectively; 4 of 5 participants remained THCCOOH positive (0.6-2.7 µg/L) after 30 days, and 1 remained positive on discharge at 33 days. CONCLUSIONS: Cannabinoids can be detected in blood of chronic daily cannabis smokers during a month of sustained abstinence. This is consistent with the time course of persisting neurocognitive impairment reported in recent studies.

In vitro stability of free and glucuronidated cannabinoids in blood and plasma following controlled smoked cannabis.

BACKGROUND: Blood and plasma cannabinoid stability is important for test interpretation and is best studied in authentic rather than fortified samples. METHODS: Low and high blood and plasma pools were created for each of 10 participants after they smoked a cannabis cigarette. The stabilities of Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 11-hydroxy-THC (11-OH-THC), 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THCCOOH), cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), THC-glucuronide, and THCCOOH-glucuronide were determined after 1 week at room temperature; 1, 2, 4, 12, and 26 (±2) weeks at 4 °C; and 1, 2, 4, 12, 26 (±2), and 52 (±4) weeks at -20 °C. Stability was assessed by Friedman test. RESULTS: Numbers of THC-glucuronide and CBD-positive blood samples were insufficient to assess stability. In blood, 11-OH-THC and CBN were stable for 1 week at room temperature, whereas THC and THCCOOH-glucuronide decreased and THCCOOH increased. In blood, THC, THCCOOH-glucuronide, THCCOOH, 11-OH-THC, and CBN were stable for 12, 4, 4, 12, and 26 weeks, respectively, at 4 °C and 12, 12, 26, 26, and 52 weeks at -20 °C. In plasma, THC-glucuronide, THC, CBN, and CBD were stable for 1 week at room temperature, whereas THCCOOH-glucuronide and 11-OH-THC decreased and THCCOOH increased. In plasma, THC-glucuronide, THC, THCCOOH-glucuronide, THCCOOH, 11-OH-THC, CBN, and CBD were stable for 26, 26, 2, 2, 26, 12, and 26 weeks, respectively, at 4 °C and 52, 52, 26, 26, 52, 52, and 52 weeks, respectively, at -20 °C. CONCLUSIONS: Blood and plasma samples should be stored at -20 °C for no more than 3 and 6 months, respectively, to assure accurate cannabinoid quantitative results.

Psychomotor function in chronic daily Cannabis smokers during sustained abstinence.

BACKGROUND: The present study assessed psychomotor function in chronic, daily cannabis smokers during 3 weeks continuously monitored abstinence on a secure research unit. We hypothesized that psychomotor performance would improve during abstinence of chronic, daily cannabis smokers. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Performance on the critical tracking (CTT) and divided attention (DAT) tasks was assessed in 19 male chronic, daily cannabis smokers at baseline and after 8, 14-16 and 21-23 days of continuously monitored abstinence. Psychomotor performance was compared to a control group of non-intoxicated occasional drug users. Critical frequency (λ(c)) of the CTT and tracking error and control losses of the DAT were the primary outcome measures. Results showed that chronic cannabis smokers' performance on the CTT (p<0.001) and the DAT (p<0.001) was impaired during baseline relative to the comparison group. Psychomotor performance in the chronic cannabis smokers improved over 3 weeks of abstinence, but did not recover to equivalent control group performance. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Sustained cannabis abstinence moderately improved critical tracking and divided attention performance in chronic, daily cannabis smokers, but impairment was still observable compared to controls after 3 weeks of abstinence. Between group differences, however, need to be interpreted with caution as chronic smokers and controls were not matched for education, social economic status, life style and race.

Can oral fluid cannabinoid testing monitor medication compliance and/or cannabis smoking during oral THC and oromucosal Sativex administration?

OBJECTIVES: We characterize cannabinoid disposition in oral fluid (OF) after dronabinol, synthetic oral Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and Sativex, a cannabis-extract oromucosal spray, and evaluate whether smoked cannabis relapse or Sativex compliance can be identified with OF cannabinoid monitoring. METHODS: 5 and 15 mg synthetic oral THC, low (5.4 mg THC, 5.0 mg cannabidiol (CBD)) and high (16.2 mg THC, 15.0 mg CBD) dose Sativex, and placebo were administered in random order (n=14). Oral fluid specimens were collected for 10.5 h after dosing and analyzed for THC, CBD, cannabinol (CBN), and 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THCCOOH). RESULTS: After oral THC, OF THC concentrations decreased over time from baseline, reflecting residual THC excretion from previously self-administered smoked cannabis. CBD and CBN also were rarely detected. After Sativex, THC, CBD and CBN increased greatly, peaking at 0.25-1 h. Median CBD/THC and CBN/THC ratios were 0.82-1.34 and 0.04-0.06, respectively, reflecting cannabinoids' composition in Sativex. THCCOOH/THC ratios within 4.5 h post Sativex were ≤ 1.6 pg/ng, always lower than after oral THC and placebo. THCCOOH/THC ratios increased throughout each dosing session. CONCLUSIONS: Lack of measurable THC, CBD and CBN in OF following oral THC, and high OF CBD/THC ratios after Sativex distinguish oral and sublingual drug delivery routes from cannabis smoking. Low THCCOOH/THC ratios suggest recent Sativex and smoked cannabis exposure. These data indicate that OF cannabinoid monitoring can document compliance with Sativex pharmacotherapy, and identify relapse to smoked cannabis during oral THC medication but not Sativex treatment, unless samples were collected shortly after smoking.

Predictive model accuracy in estimating last Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) intake from plasma and whole blood cannabinoid concentrations in chronic, daily cannabis smokers administered subchronic oral THC.

BACKGROUND: Determining time since last cannabis/Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) exposure is important in clinical, workplace, and forensic settings. Mathematical models calculating time of last exposure from whole blood concentrations typically employ a theoretical 0.5 whole blood-to-plasma (WB/P) ratio. No studies previously evaluated predictive models utilizing empirically-derived WB/P ratios, or whole blood cannabinoid pharmacokinetics after subchronic THC dosing. METHODS: Ten male chronic, daily cannabis smokers received escalating around-the-clock oral THC (40-120 mg daily) for 8 days. Cannabinoids were quantified in whole blood and plasma by two-dimensional gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. RESULTS: Maximum whole blood THC occurred 3.0 h after the first oral THC dose and 103.5h (4.3 days) during multiple THC dosing. Median WB/P ratios were THC 0.63 (n=196), 11-hydroxy-THC 0.60 (n=189), and 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THCCOOH) 0.55 (n=200). Predictive models utilizing these WB/P ratios accurately estimated last cannabis exposure in 96% and 100% of specimens collected within 1-5h after a single oral THC dose and throughout multiple dosing, respectively. Models were only 60% and 12.5% accurate 12.5 and 22.5h after the last THC dose, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Predictive models estimating time since last cannabis intake from whole blood and plasma cannabinoid concentrations were inaccurate during abstinence, but highly accurate during active THC dosing. THC redistribution from large cannabinoid body stores and high circulating THCCOOH concentrations create different pharmacokinetic profiles than those in less than daily cannabis smokers that were used to derive the models. Thus, the models do not accurately predict time of last THC intake in individuals consuming THC daily.

Identification of recent cannabis use: whole-blood and plasma free and glucuronidated cannabinoid pharmacokinetics following controlled smoked cannabis administration.

BACKGROUND: Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the most frequently observed illicit drug in investigations of accidents and driving under the influence of drugs. THC-glucuronide has been suggested as a marker of recent cannabis use, but there are no blood data following controlled THC administration to test this hypothesis. Furthermore, there are no studies directly examining whole-blood cannabinoid pharmacokinetics, although this matrix is often the only available specimen. METHODS: Participants (9 men, 1 woman) resided on a closed research unit and smoked one 6.8% THC cannabis cigarette ad libitum. We quantified THC, 11-hydroxy-THC (11-OH-THC), 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THCCOOH), cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), THC-glucuronide and THCCOOH-glucuronide directly in whole blood and plasma by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry within 24 h of collection to obviate stability issues. RESULTS: Median whole blood (plasma) observed maximum concentrations (C(max)) were 50 (76), 6.4 (10), 41 (67), 1.3 (2.0), 2.4 (3.6), 89 (190), and 0.7 (1.4) µg/L 0.25 h after starting smoking for THC, 11-OH- THC, THCCOOH, CBD, CBN, and THCCOOH-glucuronide, respectively, and 0.5 h for THC-glucuronide. At observed C(max), whole-blood (plasma) detection rates were 60% (80%), 80% (90%), and 50% (80%) for CBD, CBN, and THC-glucuronide, respectively. CBD and CBN were not detectable after 1 h in either matrix (LOQ 1.0 µg/L). CONCLUSIONS: Human whole-blood cannabinoid data following cannabis smoking will assist whole blood and plasma cannabinoid interpretation, while furthering identification of recent cannabis intake.

Plasma cannabinoid pharmacokinetics following controlled oral delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol and oromucosal cannabis extract administration.

BACKGROUND: Sativex(®), a cannabis extract oromucosal spray containing Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), is currently in phase III trials as an adjunct to opioids for cancer pain treatment, and recently received United Kingdom approval for treatment of spasticity. There are indications that CBD modulates THC's effects, but it is unclear if this is due to a pharmacokinetic and/or pharmacodynamic interaction. METHODS: Cannabis smokers provided written informed consent to participate in this randomized, controlled, double-blind, double-dummy institutional review board-approved study. Participants received 5 and 15 mg synthetic oral THC, low-dose (5.4 mg THC and 5.0 mg CBD) and high-dose (16.2 mg THC and 15.0 mg CBD) Sativex, and placebo over 5 sessions. CBD, THC, 11-hydroxy-THC, and 11-nor- 9-carboxy-THC were quantified in plasma by 2-dimensional GC-MS. Lower limits of quantification were ≤0.25 µg/L. RESULTS: Nine cannabis smokers completed all 5 dosing sessions. Significant differences (P < 0.05) in maximum plasma concentrations (C(max)) and areas under the curve from 0-10.5 h postdose (AUC(0→10.5)) for all analytes were found between low and high doses of synthetic THC and Sativex. There were no statistically significant differences in C(max), time to maximum concentration or in the AUC(0→10.5) between similar oral THC and Sativex doses. Relative bioavailability was calculated to determine the relative rate and extent of THC absorption; 5 and 15 mg oral THC bioavailability was 92.6% (13.1%) and 98.8% (11.0%) of low- and high-dose Sativex, respectively. CONCLUSION: These data suggest that CBD modulation of THC's effects is not due to a pharmacokinetic interaction at these therapeutic doses.

Validation of a two-dimensional gas chromatography mass spectrometry method for the simultaneous quantification of cannabidiol, Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 11-hydroxy-THC, and 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC in plasma.

A sensitive analytical method for simultaneous quantification of sub-nanogram concentrations of cannabidiol (CBD), Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 11-hydroxy-THC (11-OH-THC), and 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THCCOOH) in plasma is presented for monitoring cannabinoid pharmacotherapy and illicit cannabis use. Analytes were extracted from 1 mL plasma by solid-phase extraction, derivatized with N,O-bis(trimethylsilyl) trifluoroacetamide with 1% trimethylchlorosilane, and analyzed by two-dimensional gas chromatography mass spectrometry (2D-GCMS) with cryofocusing. The lower calibration curve was linear from 0.25-25 ng/mL for CBD and THC, 0.125-25 ng/mL for 11-OH-THC and 0.25-50 ng/mL for THCCOOH. A second higher linear range from 5-100 ng/mL, achieved through modification of injection parameters, was validated for THC, 11-OH-THC, and THCCOOH and was only implemented if concentrations exceeded the lower curve upper limit of linearity. This procedure prevented laborious re-extraction by allowing the same specimen to be re-injected for quantification on the high calibration curve. Intra- and inter-assay imprecision, determined at four quality control concentrations, were or=72.9% for all analytes. Analytes were stable when stored at 22 degrees C for 16 h, 4 degrees C for 48 h, after three freeze-thaw cycles at -20 degrees C and when stored on the autosampler for 48 h. This sensitive and specific 2D-GCMS assay provides a new means of simultaneously quantifying CBD, THC and metabolite biomarkers in clinical medicine, forensic toxicology, workplace drug testing, and driving under the influence of drugs programs.

Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 11-hydroxy-THC, and 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC plasma pharmacokinetics during and after continuous high-dose oral THC.

BACKGROUND: Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the primary psychoactive constituent of cannabis and an active cannabinoid pharmacotherapy component. No plasma pharmacokinetic data after repeated oral THC administration are available. METHODS: Six adult male daily cannabis smokers resided on a closed clinical research unit. Oral THC capsules (20 mg) were administered every 4-8 h in escalating total daily doses (40-120 mg) for 7 days. Free and glucuronidated plasma THC, 11-hydroxy-THC (11-OH-THC), and 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THCCOOH) were quantified by 2-dimensional GC-MS during and after dosing. RESULTS: Free plasma THC, 11-OH-THC, and THCCOOH concentrations 19.5 h after admission (before controlled oral THC dosing) were mean 4.3 (SE 1.1), 1.3 (0.5), and 34.0 (8.4) microg/L, respectively. During oral dosing, free 11-OH-THC and THCCOOH increased steadily, whereas THC did not. Mean peak plasma free THC, 11-OH-THC, and THCCOOH concentrations were 3.8 (0.5), 3.0 (0.7), and 196.9 (39.9) mug/L, respectively, 22.5 h after the last dose. Escherichia coli beta-glucuronidase hydrolysis of 264 cannabinoid specimens yielded statistically significant increases in THC, 11-OH-THC, and THCCOOH concentrations (P < 0.001), but conjugated concentrations were underestimated owing to incomplete enzymatic hydrolysis. CONCLUSIONS: Plasma THC concentrations remained >1 mug/L for at least 1 day after daily cannabis smoking and also after cessation of multiple oral THC doses. We report for the first time free plasma THC concentrations after multiple high-dose oral THC throughout the day and night, and after Escherichia coli beta-glucuronidase hydrolysis. These data will aid in the interpretation of plasma THC concentrations after multiple oral doses.