Mental health in athletes: Does authentic leadership matter?

Recent research has attested to the prevalence of mental health issues in sport, and the need to identify factors that could promote athletes' mental health. In this study, we investigated: (a) whether authentic leadership is associated with athletes' mental health directly and indirectly via psychological capital and prosocial and antisocial behaviour experienced from one's teammates; and (b) whether the hypothesized model testing these relationships is the same in higher versus lower competitive level athletes. We examined two dimensions of mental health, namely positive mental health and mental illness. A total of 751 athletes (Mage = 22.92, SD = 8.53; 294 female) from a range of sports completed a multi-section questionnaire administered via an online survey. Path analysis showed that authentic leadership was positively related to positive mental health via psychological capital and prosocial behaviour and negatively linked to mental illness via psychological capital and antisocial behaviour. The effects of authentic leadership on positive mental health via prosocial teammate behaviour and subsequently psychological capital, and on mental illness via prosocial teammate behaviour, were stronger in higher compared to lower competitive level athletes. The findings suggest that by adopting an authentic leadership style coaches could strengthen athletes' positive mental health and protect them from mental illness. This may happen by increasing athletes' psychological capital and prosocial behaviour within the team and decreasing antisocial behaviour within the team.

Some pressures are more equal than others: Effects of isolated pressure on performance.

It is commonly assumed that performance is impaired by pressure and that different types of individual situational factors can produce equivalent pressure. Our aim was to explore the psychophysiological effects of pressure to test this assumption. Eighty-one novices completed a golf putting task under control and eight individual pressure conditions: time, difficulty, video, team, goal, fame, shame, and distraction. Performance was measured by the number of holed putts and ball-hole distance. Psychological, physiological and kinematic measures were collected. Performance was impaired by time and difficulty conditions but improved by team, goal and shame conditions compared to control. Perceived pressure and effort were higher than control in all conditions except distraction. Conscious processing was greater than control in all conditions except distraction and time constraint. Heart rate was faster with time, team, fame and shame. Heart rate variability and muscle activity were largely unaffected. Putter kinematics provided evidence of swing profiles slowing and/or becoming constrained in conditions where conscious processing increased, while the swing became faster in the time-pressure condition where conscious processing was decreased. Taken together, these results reveal heterogenous effects of pressure on performance, with performance impaired, unaffected, and improved by individual pressure situations. Similarly, heterogeneity characterized the effects of pressure on psychological, physiological and kinematic responses associated with task performance. In sum, the evidence challenges the standard tacit assumptions about the pressure-performance relationship in sport.

Effects of task difficulty on performance and event-related bradycardia during preparation for action.

The slowing of heart rate prior to movement onset has been presented as a marker of task-related cognitive processing and linked with performance accuracy. Here we examined this event-related bradycardia and task performance as a function of task difficulty. Forty experienced golfers completed a series of golf putting conditions that manipulated task difficulty by varying target distance, target size, and surface contour. Performance was measured by the number of holed putts and finishing distance from the hole. Physiological activity was recorded throughout. Analyses confirmed that performance varied as a function of task difficulty, worsening with longer distances to target, smaller targets, and sloping paths to target. Task difficulty also impacted the cardiac response, including the rate of heart rate deceleration, change in heart rate, and heart rate at impact. These heart rate metrics were found to correlate with performance strongly, moderately, and weakly, respectively. In conclusion, heart rate deceleration in the moments preceding movement onset was affected by task difficulty. Features of this cardiac deceleration pattern were characteristic of successful performance. Our findings are discussed in terms of the role of cognitive and motor processes during the execution of complex motor skills.

A national anti-doping education programme reduces doping susceptibility in British athletes.

The World Anti-Doping Agency's International Standard for Education instructs that national and international sport organisations evaluate their education programmes. We addressed this directive by examining the effectiveness of a national anti-doping programme. Athletes (N = 302, 41% female) completed measures of doping susceptibility, intention to use dietary supplements, Spirit of Sport and moral values, anti-doping knowledge and practice, and whistleblowing, prior-to and three-months after attending an anti-doping education programme. At three-month follow-up, athletes reported decreased doping susceptibility and intention to use dietary supplements coupled with increased importance of values, anti-doping knowledge, anti-doping practice and whistleblowing. Within-participant, moderated-mediation analyses revealed that programme-related changes in doping susceptibility were indirectly related to changes in intention to use dietary supplements, and, that this indirect relationship was moderated by moral values. These findings confirm the effectiveness of a national anti-doping education programme and highlight the contribution of dietary supplement use and personal values to changes in doping susceptibility.

Are dietary supplement users more likely to dope than non-users?: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

In the past decade, a body of evidence has reported that dietary supplement use is related to prohibited performance enhancing substance use (i.e., doping). To help international and national sport organisations understand the degree to which dietary supplement use is related to doping, the objectives of this systematic review and meta-analysis were to 1) compare the prevalence of doping between dietary supplement users and non-users and 2) identify whether supplement use is related to doping social cognitive factors. We searched for studies sampling athletes and that measured both dietary supplement use and doping in EMBASE, MEDLINE, PsychINFO, CINAHL and SPORTDiscus from database creation to May 2022. Risk of bias was assessed using JBI Critical Appraisal Checklist for cross-sectional studies and the STROBE checklist. Twenty-six cross-sectional studies, involving 13,296 athletes were included. Random-effect models revealed that doping was 2.74 (95% CI=2.10 to 3.57) times more prevalent in dietary supplement users (pooled prevalence = 14.7%) than non-users (6.7%), and that users reported stronger doping intentions (r=0.26, 0.18 to 0.34) and attitudes (r=0.21, 0.13 to 0.28) compared to non-users. Preliminary evidence also suggests that dietary supplement users were less likely to dope if they were more task oriented and had a stronger sense of morality. Results of the review are limited by the cross-sectional design used in all studies and lack of consistency in measurement of dietary supplement use and doping. Data indicate that athletes using dietary supplements are more likely to self-report doping Anti-doping policy should, therefore, target dietary supplement use in anti-doping education programmes by providing alternative strategies for performance enhancement or highlighting the safest ways they can be consumed. Similarly, as a large proportion of athletes use dietary supplements without doping, further research is needed to understand the factors that protect a dietary supplement user from doping. No funding was received for the review. A study protocol can be found here: https://osf.io/xvcaq.

Moral values and moral identity moderate the indirect relationship between sport supplement use and doping use via sport supplement beliefs.

The Incremental Model of Doping Behaviour suggests doping grows out of the habitual use of performance-enhancing methods (e.g., sport supplements) and belief that they are necessary for performance. Importantly, in this model, doping is viewed as functional rather than moral choice. In two studies, we examined whether sport supplement use was indirectly related to doping use via sport supplement beliefs, and whether personal morality moderated this relationship. Competitive athletes (Study 1, N = 366; Study 2, N = 200) completed measures of supplement use, beliefs, and doping use. They also completed measures of moral values (Study 1) and moral identity (Study 2). In both studies, supplement use was indirectly related to doping use via beliefs. Moreover, this indirect relationship was moderated by moral values (Study 1) and moral identity (Study 2). That is, the relationship between supplement use and doping use via beliefs was negated when moral values and moral identity were high but not when they were low or moderate. Taken together, our findings suggest that sport supplement users, who believe they are necessary, are more likely to dope if they have low moral values and believe that being a moral person is unimportant to their self-image.

Effects of Cooperation and Competition on Performance, Emotion, and Effort: Goal and Means Interdependence.

Social interdependence theory proposes that task structure influences performance via social interaction. Using this framework, we examined sport performance. Fifty-six males performed a basketball task under four conditions: as an individual (individual, perform your best) and as a member of a team of two (cooperation, where teammates sought to better their individual performance; means independent competition, where two teams competed sequentially to outperform the other team; means interdependent competition, where two teams competed simultaneously to outperform the other team). Task performance (points) was better during means independent competition than other conditions. Anxiety and effort peaked during the competitions and enjoyment was greater during competition and cooperation than during the individual condition. Emotions, effort, and actions are discussed as explanations for the performance effects. Social interdependence theory provides a valuable framework to understand emotion, motivation, and performance. Team competition can be used to promote effort and enhance performance in sport.

Ego orientation is related to doping likelihood via sport supplement use and sport supplement beliefs.

ABSTRACTA growing body of evidence suggests sport supplement use is positively related to doping likelihood, both directly and indirectly via beliefs that sport supplements are effective for improving performance. However, it is unclear what leads an athlete to use sport supplements and whether such factors play a role in the supplement-beliefs-doping relationship. To address this issue, we examined whether motivational goal orientations were related to doping likelihood directly and indirectly via sport supplement use and sport supplement beliefs. Competitive athletes (N = 362, 39% female, mean ± SD; age = 23.6 ± 10.3 years, hours per week training = 5.8 ± 2.1, years competing = 5.8 ± 5.4) from a range of sports (e.g. athletics, soccer, weightlifting) completed an online survey measuring task and ego goal orientation, sport supplement use, sport supplement beliefs, and doping likelihood. Results indicated that ego orientation, but not task orientation, was indirectly related to doping likelihood via sport supplement use and sport supplement beliefs. This suggests that athletes who are ego oriented are more likely to use supplements, believe supplements are effective, and dope. These data suggest that researchers should consider ego goal orientations when interpreting relationships between sport supplement use and doping likelihood.Highlights Ego orientation is related to doping likelihood via sport supplement use and beliefs.Task orientation is not related to doping likelihood via sport supplement use and beliefs.Ego-orientated athletes using sport supplements may be more likely to dope.Researchers should consider ego goal orientation when interpreting relationships between sport supplement use and doping likelihood.

The Rowing-Specific Reinvestment Scale.

This research project aimed to develop and validate a rowing-specific reinvestment scale. In Study 1, a 24-item questionnaire was developed and the content validity was assessed using experts (N = 7) and pilot-tested in rowers (N = 24). Next, rowers (N = 282) completed the questionnaire with the remaining items, and exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted. This further reduced the number of items and revealed two factors, rowing specific conscious motor processing (RS-CMP) and movement self-consciousness (RS-MSC). In Study 2, rowers (N = 270) completed the scale that was evaluated using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Moreover, the construct validity of the scale was investigated by asking them to complete measures of movement-specific reinvestment, perceived performance, self-consciousness, and state anxiety. Actual performance was also determined based on their race finishing position. Study 1 EFA resulted in a 2-factor model with six items assessing RS-CMP and six items assessing RS-MSC. Study 2 supported the factor structure of scale; CFA indicated an acceptable model fit with good internal consistency. Content validity was also supported, with evidence of concurrent, convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity. In conclusion, these studies provided good initial evidence for the validity and reliability of the RSRS.

Athletes using ergogenic and medical sport supplements report more favourable attitudes to doping than non-users.

OBJECTIVES: Our study objectives were twofold: 1) examine whether users and non-users of different types of sport supplements vary in doping attitudes and sport supplement beliefs, and 2) determine whether the type of sport supplement is directly and indirectly (via sport supplement beliefs) related to doping attitudes. DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey. METHODS: Athletes (N=557; 77% male, mean±standard deviation; age=20.8±4.5 years, training=5.7±4.2h per week, competing=11.1±5.2 years) completed measures of sport supplement use, sport supplement beliefs, and doping attitudes. Sport supplements were classified into: ergogenic, medical, sport food and drinks, and superfoods. RESULTS: Compared to non-users, users of ergogenic (d=0.31, p<0.01) and medical (d=0.42, p<0.01) sport supplements reported more favourable attitudes towards doping. In addition, compared to non-users, users of ergogenic (d=1.10, p<0.01), medical (d=0.80, p<0.01) and sport food/drink (d=0.58, p<0.01) supplements reported stronger beliefs in the effectiveness of sport supplements to improve sport performance. Use of ergogenic, medical and sport food/drink supplements was indirectly related to doping attitudes via sport supplement beliefs. CONCLUSIONS: Researchers examining the relationship between sport supplement use and doping should differentiate between sport supplement types to improve measurement accuracy. Sport practitioners administering ergogenic and medical sport supplements to athletes may need to provide additional anti-doping education to counteract any favourable attitudes towards doping.

A Moral Intervention Reduces Doping Likelihood in British and Greek Athletes: Evidence From a Cluster Randomized Control Trial.

OBJECTIVES: The authors aimed to develop a moral intervention and to determine whether it was more effective in preventing doping than an educational (i.e., knowledge-based) intervention; their primary outcome was doping likelihood, and the secondary outcomes were moral identity, moral disengagement, moral atmosphere, and anticipated guilt. METHODS: Eligible athletes (N = 303) in the United Kingdom and Greece took part in the study. The authors randomly assigned 33 clubs to either the moral or the educational intervention. They measured outcomes pre- and postintervention and at 3- and 6-month follow-up. RESULTS: Athletes in both interventions in both countries reported lower doping likelihood and moral disengagement and higher guilt from pre- to postintervention. These effects were maintained at the 3- and 6-month follow-ups. There were no effects on moral identity or moral atmosphere. CONCLUSIONS: In addition to disseminating information about doping, doping prevention programs should include content that focuses on moral variables.

Values and clean sport.

The spirit of sport, which encompasses intrinsic values associated with sport participation, is core to the World Anti-Doping Agency's (WADA) strategy for doping prevention. The contribution of these values to clean sport has yet to be established. In this study, athletes rated the importance of spirit of sport values (WADA, 2015) and sport values (Lee et al., 2000, 2008) and indicated their clean sport likelihood in a hypothetical scenario. Clean sport likelihood was positively predicted by the five spirit of sport values (ethics/fair play/honesty, respect for rules/laws, dedication/commitment, teamwork, community/solidarity), two sport value domains (morality, competence), and 11 sport values (contract maintenance, being fair, conscientiousness, sportspersonship, show skills, health/fitness, caring/compassion, team cohesion, achievement, tolerance, obedience). Clean sport likelihood was best predicted by moral values.

The Self-Other Divergence Effect for Doping Likelihood: Mediation by Guilt and Moderation by Moral Agency and Values.

OBJECTIVES: Self-other divergence refers to individuals judging themselves to be different from others. The authors investigated doping-related self-other divergence. DESIGN: The authors used a quasi-experimental repeated-measures design to compare the effects of an independent variable (perspective: self, other) on doping likelihood and guilt. METHOD: Rugby players rated doping likelihood and guilt in situations describing two perspectives: self (their own behavior and feelings) and other (another player's behavior and feelings). They also completed measures of moral agency, identity, perfectionism, and values (moral traits). RESULTS: Doping likelihood was lower and guilt was higher for self-based ratings compared with other-based ratings. The self-other difference in doping likelihood was mediated by guilt and moderated by moral traits (larger for athletes with higher agency and values). Agency and values were more strongly related to self than other doping likelihood. CONCLUSIONS: Other-referenced measures differed from self-referenced measures of doping likelihood and guilt, indicating that it is wrong to presume equivalence of measurement.

Basic values predict doping likelihood.

Basic values, defined as trans-situational goals that vary in importance and act as guiding principles in life, have been linked with unethical cognitions, emotions and actions. Their roles in doping, a form of cheating in sport, have yet to established. College athletes reported doping likelihood in hypothetical scenario-based situations and completed measures of basic values, moral disengagement, and anticipated guilt. Correlation analysis showed that doping likelihood was positively associated with self-enhancement values but negatively associated with self-transcendence values and conservation values. Moral disengagement correlated positively with self-enhancement values and negatively with self-transcendence values, whereas guilt correlated positively conservation values and negatively with self-enhancement values and openness to change values. Regression analyses showed that self-enhancement values positively predicted doping likelihood directly, self-transcendence values negatively predicted doping likelihood indirectly via moral disengagement and guilt, and conservation values negatively predicted doping likelihood indirectly via guilt. In line with theory and evidence concerning the relationship between basic value systems and moral thought and action, we found that the values of athletes are directly (self-enhancement) and indirectly (self-transcendence, conservation) linked with likely use of banned performance enhancing substances, an expression of cheating in sport.

Sport supplement use predicts doping attitudes and likelihood via sport supplement beliefs.

The aim of this study was to examine: 1) whether sport supplement use is related to doping and 2) whether sport supplement beliefs mediated this relationship. In Study 1, athletes (N = 598), completed measures of sport supplement use, sport supplement beliefs, and doping attitudes. In Study 2, athletes (N = 475) completed measures of sport supplement use, sport supplement beliefs, and doping likelihood. In both studies, sport supplement use predicted doping outcomes indirectly via sport supplement beliefs. Our findings provide novel evidence to suggest that sport supplement users, who strongly believe that sport supplements are effective, are more likely to dope. For anti-doping organisations wishing to prevent doping, targeting an athlete's beliefs about sport supplements may improve the effectiveness of anti-doping prevention programmes.

The Relationship between Moral Climate of Sports and the Moral Behavior of Young Athletes: A Multilevel Meta-analysis.

Sports are among the most important leisure activities for youth and adolescents. Both positive (i.e., prosocial) and negative (i.e., antisocial) moral behaviors occur on the playing field. To stimulate positive sports experiences, it is important to understand which factors are related to the moral behavior of young athletes; one of these is the moral climate, that is, the socio-moral environment in which sports take place. Little is known about the overall strength of the relationship between moral climate and moral behavior of young athletes, as well as the potential moderating factors of this relationship. A meta-analysis of 27 studies containing 117 effect sizes and N = 7726 young athletes (age < 18 years) was conducted. The results show that there is an overall significant association between these two variables (r= 0.40), indicating that a prosocial moral climate is related to less antisocial and more prosocial behavior, while an antisocial moral climate is associated with more antisocial and less prosocial behavior of young athletes. Two study characteristics significantly moderated this relationship: specifically, stronger associations were found in cross-sectional and in older studies. In addition, the strength of the association between moral climate and moral behavior was stronger for antisocial moral climate compared to prosocial moral climate. Finally, associations for team members were stronger than those of coaches or a broad moral club climate. Implications for further research and sports practice are discussed.

Effects of antisocial behaviour on opponent's anger, attention, and performance.

Sledging, which is verbal antisocial behaviour in sport, aims to impair an opponent's performance. Previously, variations in performance have been attributed to changes in emotion and cognition. To improve our understanding of sledging, the current experiment examined the effects of verbal antisocial behaviour on anger, attention and performance. Participants performed a competitive basketball free-throw shooting task under insult (verbal behaviour designed to offend and upset the performer), distraction (verbal behaviour designed to draw attention away from the task), or control (neutral verbal behaviour) conditions. Performance was assessed by the number of successful baskets and a points-based scoring system, while anger and attention were measured post-task. The insult condition provoked more anger than the control and distraction conditions, whereas the insult and distraction conditions increased distraction and reduced self-focus compared to the control condition. Although verbal antisocial behaviour had no overall direct effect on performance, mediation analysis showed that anger indirectly impaired performance via distraction. Implications for the antisocial behaviour-performance relationship are discussed.

The Effects of Prosocial and Antisocial Behaviors on Emotion, Attention, and Performance During a Competitive Basketball Task.

The purpose of this experiment was to investigate whether prosocial and antisocial teammate behaviors affect emotions (i.e., happiness, anxiety, anger), attention, and performance. Undergraduate sport and exercise science students (N = 102) were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 groups: prosocial behavior, antisocial behavior, and control. They performed a basketball free-throw shooting task for 2 min in baseline and experimental phases and completed measures of emotions and attention. Free-throw shooting performance was also recorded. A series of analyses of covariances controlling for baseline scores showed that the prosocial group reported more happiness than the antisocial and control groups. The antisocial group reported more anxiety than the prosocial group and more anger and lower attention than the other 2 groups. The prosocial and antisocial groups performed better than the control group. These findings suggest that prosocial and antisocial teammate behaviors may influence the recipient's emotions, attention, and performance during sport competition.

The role of self-regulatory efficacy, moral disengagement and guilt on doping likelihood: A social cognitive theory perspective.

Given the concern over doping in sport, researchers have begun to explore the role played by self-regulatory processes in the decision whether to use banned performance-enhancing substances. Grounded on Bandura's (1991) theory of moral thought and action, this study examined the role of self-regulatory efficacy, moral disengagement and anticipated guilt on the likelihood to use a banned substance among college athletes. Doping self-regulatory efficacy was associated with doping likelihood both directly (b = -.16, P < .001) and indirectly (b = -.29, P < .001) through doping moral disengagement. Moral disengagement also contributed directly to higher doping likelihood and lower anticipated guilt about doping, which was associated with higher doping likelihood. Overall, the present findings provide evidence to support a model of doping based on Bandura's social cognitive theory of moral thought and action, in which self-regulatory efficacy influences the likelihood to use banned performance-enhancing substances both directly and indirectly via moral disengagement.

Ego involvement increases doping likelihood.

Achievement goal theory provides a framework to help understand how individuals behave in achievement contexts, such as sport. Evidence concerning the role of motivation in the decision to use banned performance enhancing substances (i.e., doping) is equivocal on this issue. The extant literature shows that dispositional goal orientation has been weakly and inconsistently associated with doping intention and use. It is possible that goal involvement, which describes the situational motivational state, is a stronger determinant of doping intention. Accordingly, the current study used an experimental design to examine the effects of goal involvement, manipulated using direct instructions and reflective writing, on doping likelihood in hypothetical situations in college athletes. The ego-involving goal increased doping likelihood compared to no goal and a task-involving goal. The present findings provide the first evidence that ego involvement can sway the decision to use doping to improve athletic performance.