Comparison of the Effects of a Roller Massager Intervention on the Rectus Femoris Between Lengthened and Slack Positions.

ABSTRACT: Kasahara, K, Konrad, A, Murakami, Y, Thomas, E, and Nakamura, M. Comparison of the effects of a roller massager intervention on the rectus femoris between lengthened and slack positions. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2024-A roller massager (RM) is a type of foam rolling device, which previous studies have shown to be effective for acutely decreasing tissue hardness and increasing range of motion (ROM). However, these effects may differ with the RM intervention position (i.e., knee flexion or knee extension). Therefore, this study aimed to compare the acute effects of an RM intervention on the rectus femoris (RF) in the knee flexed and extended positions. The subjects were 14 healthy male college students (age, 22.6 ± 0.8 years). The RF of the dominant leg was tested. Three conditions were compared: a control condition with no intervention (CON), an RM intervention in knee extension (i.e., RM_extension), and a RM intervention in knee flexion (i.e., RM_flexion). The measurements were tissue hardness in the proximal (TH_pro), middle (TH_mid), and distal (TH_dis) portions of the RF, knee flexion ROM, pain pressure threshold (PPT), maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVC-ISO) torque, and maximal voluntary concentric contraction (MVC-CON) torque in the RF before and immediately after the intervention. There were significant interaction effects of TH_mid and knee flexion ROM. Both RM_extension and RM_flexion conditions showed a significant (p < 0.01) decrease in TH_mid and an increase in knee flexion ROM, but there were no significant differences between conditions. There was a main effect for TH_pro and PPT (p < 0.05) but no significant interaction effect or main effect for TH_dis, MVC-ISO torque, and MVC-CON torque. The results showed that the RM intervention can effectively decrease tissue hardness and increase ROM, regardless of limb position (i.e., knee extension or flexion).

The Duration of Non-Local Muscle Fatigue Effects.

Non-local muscle fatigue (NLMF) refers to a transient decline in the functioning of a non-exercised muscle following the fatigue of a different muscle group. Most studies examining NLMF conducted post-tests immediately after the fatiguing protocols, leaving the duration of these effects uncertain. The aim of this study was to investigate the duration of NLMF (1-, 3-, and 5-minutes). In this randomized crossover study, 17 recreationally trained participants (four females) were tested for the acute effects of unilateral knee extensor (KE) muscle fatigue on the contralateral homologous muscle strength, and activation. Each of the four sessions included testing at either 1-, 3-, or 5-minutes post-test, as well as a control condition for non-dominant KE peak force, instantaneous strength (force produced within the first 100-ms), and vastus lateralis and biceps femoris electromyography (EMG). The dominant KE fatigue intervention protocol involved two sets of 100-seconds maximal voluntary isometric contractions (MVIC) separated by 1-minute of rest. Non-dominant KE MVIC forces showed moderate and small magnitude reductions at 1-min (p < 0.0001, d = 0.72) and 3-min (p = 0.005, d = 0.30) post-test respectively. The KE MVIC instantaneous strength revealed large magnitude, significant reductions between 1-min (p = 0.021, d = 1.33), and 3-min (p = 0.041, d = 1.13) compared with the control. In addition, EMG data revealed large magnitude increases with the 1-minute versus control condition (p = 0.03, d = 1.10). In summary, impairments of the non-exercised leg were apparent up to 3-minutes post-exercise with no significant deficits at 5-minutes. Recovery duration plays a crucial role in the manifestation of NLMF.

Resistance Training Causes the Stretch-Induced Force Deficit-A Randomized Cross-Over Study.

PURPOSE: Stretch-induced force deficit suggests an acute stretch-specific strength capacity loss, which is commonly attributed to EMG reductions. Since those deficits could also be attributed to general fatigue induced by overloading the muscle, this study aimed to compare stretching with an exhausting calf raise programme to compare strength and stretching responses. METHOD: This study included 16 participants with different, high-duration calf muscle stretching effects (10, 20, 30 min of stretching) with resistance training (RT) (3 × 12 repetitions) performed until muscle failure, by using a cross-over study design with pre-post comparisons. Strength was tested via isometric plantar flexor diagnostics, while flexibility was assessed using the knee-to-wall test (KtW) and an isolated goniometer test. RESULTS: Using a three-way ANOVA, RT strength decreases were greater compared to 10 and 20 min of stretching (p = 0.01-0.02), but similar to those of 30 min of stretching. ROM in the KtW showed no specific stretch-induced increases, while only the stretching conditions enhanced isolated tested ROM (p < 0.001-0.008). No RT-related isolated ROM increases were observed. CONCLUSIONS: The results showed both interventions had similar effects on strength and ROM in the calf muscles. More holistic explanatory approaches such as fatigue and warm-up are discussed in the manuscript and call for further research.

A four-week minimalist shoe walking intervention influences foot posture and balance in young adults-a randomized controlled trial.

INTRODUCTION: Minimalist shoes (MS) are beneficial for foot health. The foot is a part of the posterior chain. It is suggested that interventions on the plantar foot sole also affect the upper segments of the body. This study aimed to investigate the local and remote effects along the posterior chain of four weeks of MS walking in recreationally active young adults. METHODS: 28 healthy participants (15 female, 13 male; 25.3 ± 5.3 years; 70.2 ± 11.9 kg; 175.0 ± 7.8 cm) were randomly assigned to a control- or intervention group. The intervention group undertook a four-week incremental MS walking program, which included 3,000 steps/day in the first week, increasing to 5,000 steps/day for the remaining three weeks. The control group walked in their preferred shoe (no MS). We assessed the following parameters in a laboratory at baseline [M1], after the four-week intervention [M2], and after a four-week wash-out period [M3]: Foot parameters (i.e., Foot Posture Index-6, Arch Rigidity Index), static single-leg stance balance, foot-, ankle-, and posterior chain range of motion, and muscle strength of the posterior chain. We fitted multiple hierarchically built mixed models to the data. RESULTS: In the MS group, the Foot Posture Index (b = -3.72, t(51) = -6.05, p < .001, [-4.94, 2.51]) and balance (b = -17.96, t(49) = -2.56, p = .01, [-31.54, 4.37]) significantly improved from M1 to M2, but not all other parameters (all p >.05). The improvements remained at M3 (Foot Posture Index: b = -1.71, t(51) = -2.73, p = .009, [-4,94,0.48]; balance: b = -15.97, t(49) = -2.25, p = .03, [-29.72, 2.21]). DISCUSSION: Walking in MS for four weeks might be advantageous for foot health of recreationally active young adults but no chronic remote effects should be expected.

Static Stretch Training versus Foam Rolling Training Effects on Range of Motion: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Long-term static stretching as well as foam rolling training can increase a joint's range of motion (ROM). However, to date, it is not clear which method is the most effective for increasing ROM. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to compare the effects of static stretching and foam rolling training on ROM. METHODS: The literature search was performed in PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science to find the eligible studies. Eighty-five studies (72 on static stretching; and 13 on foam rolling) were found to be eligible with 204 effect sizes (ESs). For the main analyses, a random-effect meta-analysis was applied. To assess the difference between static stretching and foam rolling, subgroup analyses with a mixed-effect model were applied. Moderating variables were sex, total intervention duration, and weeks of intervention. RESULTS: Static stretch (ES = - 1.006; p < 0.001), as well as foam rolling training (ES = - 0.729; p = 0.001), can increase joint ROM with a moderate magnitude compared with a control condition. However, we did not detect a significant difference between the two conditions in the subgroup analysis (p = 0.228). When the intervention duration was ≤ 4 weeks, however, a significant change in ROM was shown following static stretching (ES = - 1.436; p < 0.001), but not following foam rolling (ES = - 0.229; p = 0.248). Thus, a subgroup analysis indicated a significant favorable effect with static stretching for increasing ROM compared with foam rolling (p < 0.001) over a shorter term (≤ 4 weeks). Other moderator analyses showed no significant difference between static stretch and foam rolling training on ROM. CONCLUSIONS: According to the results, both static stretching and foam rolling training can be similarly recommended to increase joint ROM, unless the training is scheduled for ≤ 4 weeks, in which case static stretching demonstrates a significant advantage. More studies are needed with a high-volume foam rolling training approach as well as foam rolling training in exclusively female participants.

Discussing Conflicting Explanatory Approaches in Flexibility Training Under Consideration of Physiology: A Narrative Review.

The mechanisms underlying range of motion enhancements via flexibility training discussed in the literature show high heterogeneity in research methodology and study findings. In addition, scientific conclusions are mostly based on functional observations while studies considering the underlying physiology are less common. However, understanding the underlying mechanisms that contribute to an improved range of motion through stretching is crucial for conducting comparable studies with sound designs, optimising training routines and accurately interpreting resulting outcomes. While there seems to be no evidence to attribute acute range of motion increases as well as changes in muscle and tendon stiffness and pain perception specifically to stretching or foam rolling, the role of general warm-up effects is discussed in this paper. Additionally, the role of mechanical tension applied to greater muscle lengths for range of motion improvement will be discussed. Thus, it is suggested that physical training stressors can be seen as external stimuli that control gene expression via the targeted stimulation of transcription factors, leading to structural adaptations due to enhanced protein synthesis. Hence, the possible role of serial sarcomerogenesis in altering pain perception, reducing muscle stiffness and passive torque, or changes in the optimal joint angle for force development is considered as well as alternative interventions with a potential impact on anabolic pathways. As there are limited possibilities to directly measure serial sarcomere number, longitudinal muscle hypertrophy remains without direct evidence. The available literature does not demonstrate the necessity of only using specific flexibility training routines such as stretching to enhance acute or chronic range of motion.

Effects of chronic static stretching interventions on jumping and sprinting performance-a systematic review with multilevel meta-analysis.

When improving athletic performance in sports with high-speed strength demands such as soccer, basketball, or track and field, the most common training method might be resistance training and plyometrics. Since a link between strength capacity and speed strength exists and recently published literature suggested chronic stretching routines may enhance maximum strength and hypertrophy, this review was performed to explore potential benefits on athletic performance. Based on current literature, a beneficial effect of static stretching on jumping and sprinting performance was hypothesized. A systematic literature search was conducted using PubMed, Web of Science and Google scholar. In general, 14 studies revealed 29 effect sizes (ES) (20 for jumping, nine for sprinting). Subgroup analyses for jump performance were conducted for short- long- and no stretch shortening cycle trials. Qualitative evaluation was supplemented by performing a multilevel meta-analysis via R (Package: metafor). Significant positive results were documented in six out of 20 jump tests and in six out of nine sprint tests, while two studies reported negative adaptations. Quantitative data analyses indicated a positive but trivial magnitude of change on jumping performance (ES:0.16, p = 0.04), while all subgroup analyses did not support a positive effect (p = 0.09-0.44). No significant influence of static stretching on sprint performance was obtained (p = 0.08). Stretching does not seem to induce a sufficient stimulus to meaningfully enhance jumping and sprinting performance, which could possibly attributed to small weekly training volumes or lack of intensity.

Comparison of the effects of different foam rolling durations on knee extensors function.

Foam rolling (FR) intervention has recently attracted attention in sports and rehabilitation settings. However, the effects of FR using different rolling durations have not been fully clarified. Thus, this study focused on FR durations and examined the acute and prolonged (i.e., 20-min; 40-min, 60-min) effects of different FR intervention durations on maximal voluntary concentric contractions (MVC-CON), knee flexion range of motion (ROM), pain pressure threshold (PPT), and tissue hardness. The participants were 10 male university students (22.5 ± 1.0 years), and the target muscles were the dominant leg knee extensors. Three sets of 60-seconds FR interventions were performed in the randomized crossover trials in each condition. The three intervention conditions were fast (1 rolling/2 s, 30-repetition × 3 sets, 90 repetitions), medium (1 rolling/6 s, 10-repetition × 3 sets, 30 repetitions), and slow speed (1 rolling/12 s, 5-repetition × 3 sets, 15 repetitions). Before as well as immediately, 20-min, 40-min, and 60-min after the interventions, MVC-CON, ROM PPT, and tissue hardness were measured. The results showed no interaction effect in the acute effect but a main effect of time for all variables (p < 0.05). Also, no interaction was observed in prolonged effect, but main effects of time were observed in knee flexion ROM, PPT, and tissue hardness (p < 0.01) but not for MVC-CON. Post-hoc tests showed significant PPT (p < 0.05) and knee flexion ROM (p < 0.01) increases up to 20- and 60-minutes respectively after all interventions. Tissue hardness was significantly (p < 0.01) decreased up to 60-minutes after all interventions. This study showed that the FR intervention changed ROM, PPT, tissue hardness, and MVC-CON regardless of rolling duration and that the effects persisted up to 20-60 minutes.

Comparison of acute and prolonged effects of short-term foam rolling and vibration foam rolling on the properties of knee extensors.

Recently, Foam Rolling (FR) and Vibration Foam Rolling (VFR) have attracted attention in sports and rehabilitation fields. Previous studies have shown that FR and VFR acute interventions effectively increase the range of movement (ROM) and decrease tissue hardness. For application to sports and rehabilitation, it is necessary to compare the acute and prolonged effects of short duration FR and VFR. Therefore, this study aimed to compare and investigate the acute and prolonged (15 minutes) effects of short duration (30-s) FR and VFR interventions on knee extensors. The subjects were 14 male university students (22.4 ± 1.0 years old), in which the knee extensors of the dominant leg were tested. In a cross-over trial, 30-s of FR or VFR were performed with 2-s rolling of the anterior thigh (15 rolls). The frequency of VFR was 35 Hz. Measurements included knee flexion ROM, pain pressure threshold (PPT), tissue hardness, and countermovement jump height. The results of this study showed no interaction effects for all variables, but main time effects were observed for knee flexion ROM, PPT, and tissue hardness. Post-hoc tests showed that knee flexion ROM increased up to 10 minutes after the intervention. PPT significantly increased, and tissue hardness significantly decreased up to 15 minutes after intervention. This study showed that 30-s FR and VFR interventions effectively increased ROM, PPT, and decreased tissue hardness. The effects were prolonged up to 10-15 minutes after the intervention. The results of this study show no advantage of VFR over FR with acute short-term interventions.

Is muscle stiffness a determinant for range of motion in the leg muscles?

Previous training studies with comprehensive stretching durations have reported that an increase in range of motion (ROM) can be related to decreases in muscle stiffness. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to analyze the association between the passive muscle stiffness of three muscle groups (triceps surae, quadriceps, hamstrings) to the respective joint ROM. Thirty-six healthy male soccer players volunteered in this study. After a standardized warm-up, the muscle stiffness was tested via shear wave elastography in six muscles (gastrocnemius medialis and lateralis, rectus femoris, semitendinosus, semimembranosus, and biceps femoris long head). The hip extension, hip flexion, and ankle dorsiflexion ROM were also assessed with a modified Thomas test, a sit and reach test, and a standing wall push test, respectively. We found significant moderate to large correlations between hip flexion ROM and muscle stiffness for the semimembranosus (rP = -0.43; P = 0.01), biceps femoris long head (rP = -0.45; P = 0.01), and overall hamstring stiffness (rP = -0.50; P < 0.01). No significant correlations were found for triceps surae (rP = -0.12; P = 0.51 to 0.67) and rectus femoris muscle stiffness (rP = 0.25; P = 0.14) with ankle dorsiflexion and hip extension ROM, respectively. We conclude that muscle stiffness is an important contributor to hip flexion ROM, but less important for hip extension or ankle joint ROM. Additional contributors to ROM might be tendon stiffness or stretch/pain tolerance.

The Acute Effect of Percussive Massage Intervention with and without Heat Application on Plantar Flexor Muscles' Passive and Active Properties.

Recently, percussive massage (PM) intervention using a handheld percussive massage device, namely a massage gun, has been used as an easy way to perform vibration functions. Additionally, a product has been developed that allows PM intervention and heat application to be performed simultaneously. Thus, this study aimed to compare the acute effects of PM intervention with and without heat application on dorsiflexion (DF) range of motion (ROM), passive stiffness, and muscle strength in the gastrocnemius muscle. Fifteen healthy young men (20.9 ± 0.2 years) participated in this study. We measured the DF ROM, passive torque at DF ROM (an indicator of stretch tolerance), passive stiffness, and maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) torque of the plantar flexor muscles before and immediately after 120 seconds PM intervention with and without heat application. The results showed that PM intervention with and without heat application significantly increased DF ROM and passive torque at DF ROM and decreased passive stiffness, not MVIC torque. These results suggest that PM intervention increased ROM and decreased passive stiffness regardless of the presence or absence of the heat application.

Relationship between pectoralis major stiffness and shoulder extension range of motion.

This study aimed to investigate the correlation between the passive muscle stiffness of the pectoralis major muscle pars clavicularis (PMc) and shoulder extension range of motion (ROM) in both male and female participants. Thirty-nine (23 male/16 female) physically active and healthy participants volunteered in this study. After a standardized warm-up, the PMc stiffness was tested via shear wave elastography at a slightly stretched position (long muscle length) and in a non-stretched position (short muscle length). Additionally, a custom-made device and 3D motion capture assessed the active shoulder extension ROM. We found a significant moderate and negative relationship between shoulder extension ROM and PMc stiffness at long muscle length (rs = -0.33; p = 0.04) but not at short muscle length (r = -0.23; p = 0.17). Additionally, there was no significant difference between male and female participants in the correlation analyses at both elbow angles. The moderate correlation between PMc stiffness at a slightly stretched position and shoulder extension ROM suggests that additionally, other structures such as nerves/fascia stiffness or even stretch tolerance might be factors that can be related to shoulder extension ROM.

Acute effects of resistance training at different range of motions on plantar flexion mechanical properties and force.

The effects obtained from resistance training depend on the exercise range of motion (ROM) performed. We aimed to examine the acute effects of different exercise ROM resistance training on the plantar flexor muscles. Eighteen healthy untrained male adults participated in three conditions: calf raises in 1) partial condition [final (short muscle length) partial ROM], 2) full condition (full ROM), and 3) control condition. The ankle dorsiflexion (DF) ROM, passive torque at DF ROM, passive stiffness of muscle-tendon unit, and maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVC-ISO) torque were measured before and immediately after the interventions. There were significant increases in DF ROM, passive torque at DF ROM, and a decrease in MVC-ISO, but no significant interaction in passive stiffness. Post hoc test, DF ROM demonstrated moderate magnitude increases in the full condition compared to the partial (p = 0.023, d = 0.74) and control (p = 0.003, d = 0.71) conditions. Passive torque at DF ROM also showed moderate magnitude increases in the full condition compared to the control condition (p = 0.016, d = 0.69). MVC-ISO had a moderate magnitude decrease in the full condition compared to the control condition (p = 0.018, d=-0.53). Resistance training in the full ROM acutely increases joint ROM to a greater extent than final partial ROM, most likely due to stretch tolerance.

Testing the Posterior Chain: Diagnostic Accuracy of the Bunkie Test versus the Isokinetic Hamstrings/Quadriceps Measurement in Patients with Self-Reported Knee Pain and Healthy Controls.

(1) Background: The isokinetic measurement (IM) of the leg muscles is well established but costly, whereas the Bunkie Test (BT) is a rarely investigated but easy-to-conduct functional test to evaluate the total posterior chain. Although the tests differ in aim and test structures, both have their justification in the assessment process. Therefore, this study evaluated the diagnostic accuracy of the BT and the IM. (2) Methods: 21 participants (9 female, 12 male; age, 26.2 ± 5.26 years; weight 73.8 ± 14.6 kg; height 176.0 ± 9.91 cm) and 21 patients (9 female, 12 male; age, 26.5 ± 5.56 years; weight, 72.6 ± 16.9 kg; height 177.0 ± 10.1 cm) with self-reported pain in the knee performed the IM and the BT. For IM, we calculated the ratio of the knee mean flexor/extensor peak torque (H/Q ratio) for 60°/s and 120°/s, and BT performance was measured in seconds. We classified the IM (<0.6 H/Q ratio) and the BT (leg difference ≥4 s) as binary results according to the literature. We calculated the sensitivity and specificity, which we compared with the Chi-Square test, and the 95% confidence intervals (CI). A p-value of ≤0.05 is considered significant. (3) Results: The sensitivity for the BT was 0.89, 95% CI [0.67, 0.99], and the specificity was 0.52 [0.30, 0.74]. For the IM, the sensitivity was 0.14 [0.03, 0.36] for 60°/s and 0.05 [0.00, 0.24] for 120°/s, and the specificity was 0.70 [0.46, 0.88] for 60°/s and 0.90 [0.68, 0.99] for 120°/s. The results of the Chi-Square tests were significant for the BT (χ2 (1) = 6.17, p = 0.01) but not for the IM (60°/s: χ2 (1) = 0.70, p = 0.40; 120°/s: χ2 (1) = 0.00, p = 0.97). (4) Conclusions: Patients were more likely to obtain a positive test result for the BT but not for the IM.

Maximum strength and power as determinants of on-ice sprint performance in elite U16 to adult ice hockey players.

In ice hockey, speed strength is one of the major physical key performance indicators, which is significantly influenced by maximum strength. The objective of this study was to evaluate the age-dependent relationship of off-ice maximum strength and vertical jump performance with on-ice linear sprint performance, considering age and performance level. Ninety-one male youth and adult professional ice hockey players (age: 19.3 ± 5.49 years) were recruited and divided into four age groups: under 16, 18, 21 years old and professional elite players (Pro) (i.e., > 21 years). They were tested in maximal isometric strength, squat jump (loaded and unloaded), countermovement jump and on-ice sprint performance (15 m and 30 m linear sprint; 15 m flying linear sprint). Statistical analysis revealed that on-ice sprint performance correlated with isometric strength performance (r = |0.34|-|0.63|) and with off-ice jump performance (r = |0.61|-|0.77|) without an influence of age group or performance level. However, performance differed between age groups and performance level, the largest differences being found between the youngest age group (U16) and the Pro group (g = 0.966-3.281). The present study shows that maximum strength influences on-ice sprint performances in ice hockey players, as well as performance differences between age groups and professional players. Strength and jumping performance should therefore be included in regular performance testing in ice hockey. Since performance differences are observed for almost all strength and speed-strength performances of the youth teams to the Pros, training of these variables is strongly recommended to improve in the transition phase from junior to elite level.

The knowledge of movement experts about stretching effects: Does the science reach practice?

OBJECTIVE: Stretching is performed with numerous purposes in multiple settings such as prevention, rehabilitation, fitness training and sports. Its patterns of use substantially depend on the education and beliefs of health care and exercise professionals as they represent the multiplicators recommending and prescribing interventions to clients, patients and athletes. This study investigated movement experts' knowledge about the scientific evidence on stretching effects. DESIGN: Survey study. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 117 exercise and health professionals (physiotherapists, sports scientists, coaches) attending a training convention in Austria (male: n = 44, female: n = 73, 36±11 years) completed a digital survey. With its 22 items, the questionnaire addressed the movement experts' awareness of the evidence on stretching effects regarding a variety of related topics selected based on the findings of topical systematic reviews. RESULTS: The majority of the individuals (57-88%) assumed positive effects of stretching on recovery, prevention of muscle injury, range of motion, muscular imbalance and artery elasticity. No or adverse effects were mostly claimed on bone injury prevention, maximal/explosive strength, and delayed-onset muscle soreness. In only 10 of 22 items, participants' classifications were in accord with the scientific evidence. CONCLUSIONS: The awareness of research findings on stretching effects among exercise and health professionals is alarmingly low. Future studies may hence be geared to improve implementation and science communication.

Chronic effects of stretching on range of motion with consideration of potential moderating variables: A systematic review with meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: It is well known that stretch training can induce prolonged increases in joint range of motion (ROM). However, to date more information is needed regarding which training variables might have greater influence on improvements in flexibility. Thus, the purpose of this meta-analysis was to investigate the effects of stretch training on ROM in healthy participants by considering potential moderating variables, such as stretching technique, intensity, duration, frequency, and muscles stretched, as well as sex-specific, age-specific, and/or trained state-specific adaptations to stretch training. METHODS: We searched through PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and SportDiscus to find eligible studies and, finally, assessed the results from 77 studies and 186 effect sizes by applying a random-effect meta-analysis. Moreover, by applying a mixed-effect model, we performed the respective subgroup analyses. To find potential relationships between stretch duration or age and effect sizes, we performed a meta-regression. RESULTS: We found a significant overall effect, indicating that stretch training can increase ROM with a moderate effect compared to the controls (effect size = -1.002; Z = -12.074; 95% confidence interval: -1.165 to -0.840; p < 0.001; I2 = 74.97). Subgroup analysis showed a significant difference between the stretching techniques (p = 0.01) indicating that proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation and static stretching produced greater ROM than did ballistic/dynamic stretching. Moreover, there was a significant effect between the sexes (p = 0.04), indicating that females showed higher gains in ROM compared to males. However, further moderating analysis showed no significant relation or difference. CONCLUSION: When the goal is to maximize ROM in the long term, proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation or static stretching, rather than ballistic/dynamic stretching, should be applied. Something to consider in future research as well as sports practice is that neither volume, intensity, nor frequency of stretching were found to play a significant role in ROM yields.

Minimalist Training: Is Lower Dosage or Intensity Resistance Training Effective to Improve Physical Fitness? A Narrative Review.

BACKGROUND: Findings from original research, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses have demonstrated the effectiveness of resistance training (RT) on markers of performance and health. However, the literature is inconsistent with regards to the dosage effects (frequency, intensity, time, type) of RT to maximize training-induced improvements. This is most likely due to moderating factors such as age, sex, and training status. Moreover, individuals with limited time to exercise or who lack motivation to perform RT are interested in the least amount of RT to improve physical fitness. OBJECTIVES: The objective of this review was to investigate and identify lower than typically recommended RT dosages (i.e., shorter durations, lower volumes, and intensity activities) that can improve fitness components such as muscle strength and endurance for sedentary individuals or beginners not meeting the minimal recommendation of exercise. METHODS: Due to the broad research question involving different RT types, cohorts, and outcome measures (i.e., high heterogeneity), a narrative review was selected instead of a systematic meta-analysis approach. RESULTS: It seems that one weekly RT session is sufficient to induce strength gains in RT beginners with < 3 sets and loads below 50% of one-repetition maximum (1RM). With regards to the number of repetitions, the literature is controversial and some authors report that repetition to failure is key to achieve optimal adaptations, while other authors report similar adaptations with fewer repetitions. Additionally, higher intensity or heavier loads tend to provide superior results. With regards to the RT type, multi-joint exercises induce similar or even larger effects than single-joint exercises. CONCLUSION: The least amount of RT that can be performed to improve physical fitness for beginners for at least the first 12 weeks is one weekly session at intensities below 50% 1RM, with < 3 sets per multi-joint exercise.

Acute effects of static stretching on passive stiffness in older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Static stretching has been demonstrated to improve the health of older adults. One of its goals is to decrease passive stiffness of the muscle-tendon unit (MTU) and/or muscles. Decreased passive stiffness in older adults could increase the range of motion and movement efficiency. Herein, we conducted a meta-analysis of the acute effects of static stretching on passive stiffness in older adults as well as a meta-analysis of differences in these effects between older and young adults. BACKGROUND: PubMed, Web of Science, and EBSCO were searched for studies published before June 28, 2023. Manual searches were performed to identify additional studies. All included studies were critically reviewed by five authors. Meta-analyses of muscle and tendon injuries were performed using a random effect model. Of 4643 identified studies, 6 studies were included in the systematic review. RESULTS: The main meta-analysis in older adults showed that static stretching could decrease the passive stiffness of the MTU or muscles (effect size, 0.55; 95 % confidence interval, 0.27 to 0.84; p < 0.01; and I2 = 0.0 %). Moreover, for the comparison between young and old adults, three studies were included in the meta-analysis. The results revealed no significant difference in the effects of static stretching interventions on stiffness between older and young adults (effect size, 0.136; 95 % confidence interval, -0.301 to 0.5738; p = 0.541; and I2 = 17.4 %). Static stretching could decrease the passive stiffness of the MTU and/or muscles in older adults to a small magnitude, and the effects were comparable between older and young adults.