Selective knockdown of GABAA-α2 subunit in the dorsal dentate gyrus in adulthood induces anxiety, learning and memory deficits and impairs synaptic plasticity.

Animal studies and clinical trials suggest that maintenance of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-ergic activity may be crucial in coping with stressful conditions, anxiety and mood disorders. Drugs highly efficient in promoting anxiolysis were shown to activate this system, particularly via the α2-subunit of type A receptors (GABAA α2). Given the high expression of GABAA α2 in the dentate gyrus (DG) sub-field of the hippocampus, we sought to examine whether manipulation of the α2 subunit in this area will evoke changes in emotional behaviour, memory and learning as well as in synaptic plasticity. We found that knockdown of GABAAα2 receptor specifically in the dorsal DG of rats caused increased anxiety without affecting locomotor activity. Spatial memory and learning in the Morris water maze were also impaired in GABAAα2 receptor knocked down rats, an effect accompanied by alterations in synaptic plasticity, as assessed by long-term potentiation in the DG. Our findings provide further support to the notion that emotional information processing in the hippocampus may be controlled, at least in part, via the inhibitory GABAA α2 receptor subunit, opening a potential avenue for early interventions from pre- puberty into adulthood, as a strategy for controlling anxiety-related psychopathology.

Disruption of amygdala Tsc2 in adolescence leads to changed prelimbic cellular activity and generalized fear responses at adulthood in rats.

Adolescence constitutes a period of vulnerability in the emergence of fear-related disorders (FRD), as a massive reorganization occurs in the amygdala-prefrontal cortex network, critical to regulate fear behavior. Genetic and environmental factors during development may predispose to the emergence of FRD at the adult age, but the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. In the present study, we tested whether a partial knock-down of tuberous sclerosis complex 2 (Tsc2, Tuberin), a risk gene for neurodevelopmental disorders, in the basolateral amygdala (BLA) from adolescence could alter fear-network functionality and create a vulnerability ground to FRD appearance at adulthood. Using bilateral injection of a lentiviral vector expressing a miRNA against Tsc2 in the BLA of early (PN25) or late adolescent (PN50) rats, we show that alteration induced specifically from PN25 resulted in an increased c-Fos activity at adulthood in specific layers of the prelimbic cortex, a resistance to fear extinction and an overgeneralization of fear to a safe, novel stimulus. A developmental dysfunction of the amygdala could thus play a role in the vulnerability to FRD emergence at adulthood. We propose our methodology as an alternative to model the developmental vulnerability to FRD, especially in its comorbidity with TSC2-related autism syndrome.

Intra-amygdala metaplasticity modulation of fear extinction learning.

The amygdala is a key brain region involved in emotional memory formation. It is also responsible for memory modulation in other brain areas. Under extreme conditions, amygdala modulation may lead to the generation of abnormal plasticity and trauma-related psychopathologies. However, the amygdala itself is a dynamic brain region, which is amenable to long-term plasticity and is affected by emotional experiences. These alterations may modify the way the amygdala modulates activity and plasticity in other related brain regions, which in turn may alter the animal's response to subsequent challenges in what could be termed as "Behavioral metaplasticity."Because of the reciprocal interactions between the amygdala and other emotion processing regions, such as the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) or the hippocampus, experience-induced intra-amygdala metaplasticity could lead to alterations in mPFC-dependent or hippocampus-dependent behaviors. While initiated by alterations within the basolateral amygdala (BLA), such alterations in other brain regions may come to be independent of BLA modulation, thus establishing what may be termed "Trans-regional metaplasticity." In this article, we review evidence supporting the notions of intra-BLA metaplasticity and how this may develop into "Trans-regional metaplasticity." Future research is needed to understand how such dynamic metaplastic alterations contribute to developing psychopathologies, and how this knowledge may be translated into promoting novel interventions in psychopathologies associated with fear, stress, and trauma.

Autism Spectrum Disorder Risk Factor Met Regulates the Organization of Inhibitory Synapses.

A common hypothesis explains autism spectrum disorder (ASD) as a neurodevelopmental disorder linked to excitatory/inhibitory (E/I) imbalance in neuronal network connectivity. Mutation of genes including Met and downstream signaling components, e.g., PTEN, Tsc2 and, Rheb are involved in the control of synapse formation and stabilization and were all considered as risk genes for ASD. While the impact of Met on glutamatergic synapses was widely appreciated, its contribution to the stability of inhibitory, GABAergic synapses is poorly understood. The stabilization of GABAergic synapses depends on clustering of the postsynaptic scaffolding protein gephyrin. Here, we show in vivo and in vitro that Met is necessary and sufficient for the stabilization of GABAergic synapses via induction of gephyrin clustering. Likewise, we provide evidence for Met-dependent gephyrin clustering via activation of mTOR. Our results support the notion that deficient GABAergic signaling represents a pathomechanism for ASD.

Low-Temperature Atomic Layer Deposited Oxide on Titanium Nitride Electrodes Enables Culture and Physiological Recording of Electrogenic Cells.

The performance of electrode arrays insulated by low-temperature atomic layer deposited (ALD) titanium dioxide (TiO2) or hafnium dioxide (HfO2) for culture of electrogenic cells and for recording of extracellular action potentials is investigated. If successful, such insulation may be considered to increase the stability of future neural implants. Here, insulation of titanium nitride electrodes of microelectrode arrays (MEAs) was performed using ALD of nanometer-sized TiO2 or hafnium oxide at low temperatures (100-200°C). The electrode properties, impedance, and leakage current were measured and compared. Although electrode insulation using ALD oxides increased the electrode impedance, it did not prevent stable, physiological recordings of electrical activity from electrogenic cells (cardiomyocytes and neurons). The insulation quality, estimated from leakage current measurements, was less than 100 nA/cm2 in a range of 3 V. Cardiomyocytes were successfully cultured and recorded after 5 days on the insulated MEAs with signal shapes similar to the recordings obtained using uncoated electrodes. Light-induced electrical activity of retinal ganglion cells was recorded using a complementary metal-oxide semiconductor-based MEA insulated with HfO2 without driving the recording electrode into saturation. The presented results demonstrate that low-temperature ALD-deposited TiO2 and hafnium oxide are biocompatible and biostable and enable physiological recordings. Our results indicate that nanometer-sized ALD insulation can be used to protect electrodes for long-term biological applications.

Generation and characterization of human induced pluripotent stem cells lines from four patients diagnosed with schizophrenia and one healthy control.

Fibroblasts were isolated from skin biopsies of four patients diagnosed with schizophrenia and from one healthy control. Patient fibroblasts were transfected with five episomal, non-integrative reprogramming vectors to generate human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC). Reprogrammed iPSC showed consistent expression of several pluripotency markers, loss of expression of exogenous reprogramming vectors and ability to differentiate into all three germ layers. Additionally, iPSC maintained their normal karyotype during reprogramming. These generated cell lines can be used to study early neurodevelopmental and neuroinflammatory processes in schizophrenia in a patient-derived in vitro model.

Interference With Complex IV as a Model of Age-Related Decline in Synaptic Connectivity.

Age-related impairment of mitochondrial function may negatively impact energy-demanding processes such as synaptic transmission thereby triggering cognitive decline and processes of neurodegeneration. Here, we present a novel model for age-related mitochondrial impairment based on partial inhibition of cytochrome c oxidase subunit 4 (Cox4) of complex IV of the respiratory chain. miRNA-mediated knockdown of Cox4 correlated with a marked reduction in excitatory and inhibitory synaptic marker densities in vitro and in vivo as well as an impairment of neuronal network activity in primary neuronal cultures. Transcriptome analysis identified the deregulation of gene clusters, which link induced mitochondrial perturbation to impaired synaptic function and plasticity as well as processes of aging. In conclusion, the model of Cox4 deficiency reflects aspects of age-related dementia and might, therefore, serve as a novel test system for drug development.

Comparative characterization of human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSC) derived from patients with schizophrenia and autism.

Human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSC) provide an attractive tool to study disease mechanisms of neurodevelopmental disorders such as schizophrenia. A pertinent problem is the development of hiPSC-based assays to discriminate schizophrenia (SZ) from autism spectrum disorder (ASD) models. Healthy control individuals as well as patients with SZ and ASD were examined by a panel of diagnostic tests. Subsequently, skin biopsies were taken for the generation, differentiation, and testing of hiPSC-derived neurons from all individuals. SZ and ASD neurons share a reduced capacity for cortical differentiation as shown by quantitative analysis of the synaptic marker PSD95 and neurite outgrowth. By contrast, pattern analysis of calcium signals turned out to discriminate among healthy control, schizophrenia, and autism samples. Schizophrenia neurons displayed decreased peak frequency accompanied by increased peak areas, while autism neurons showed a slight decrease in peak amplitudes. For further analysis of the schizophrenia phenotype, transcriptome analyses revealed a clear discrimination among schizophrenia, autism, and healthy controls based on differentially expressed genes. However, considerable differences were still evident among schizophrenia patients under inspection. For one individual with schizophrenia, expression analysis revealed deregulation of genes associated with the major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC class II) presentation pathway. Interestingly, antipsychotic treatment of healthy control neurons also increased MHC class II expression. In conclusion, transcriptome analysis combined with pattern analysis of calcium signals appeared as a tool to discriminate between SZ and ASD phenotypes in vitro.

Neurofascin Knock Down in the Basolateral Amygdala Mediates Resilience of Memory and Plasticity in the Dorsal Dentate Gyrus Under Stress.

Activation of the amygdala is one of the hallmarks of acute stress reactions and a central element of the negative impact of stress on hippocampus-dependent memory and cognition. Stress-induced psychopathologies, such as posttraumatic stress disorder, exhibit a sustained hyperactivity of the amygdala, triggered at least in part by deficits in GABAergic inhibition that lead to shifts in amygdalo-hippocampal interaction. Here, we have utilized lentiviral knock down of neurofascin to reduce GABAergic inhibition specifically at the axon initial segment (AIS) of principal neurons within the basolateral amygdala (BLA) of rats. Metaplastic effects of such a BLA modulation on hippocampal synaptic function were assessed using BLA priming prior to the induction of long-term potentiation (LTP) on dentate gyrus synapses in anesthetized rats in vivo. The knock down of neurofascin in the BLA prevented a priming-induced impairment on LTP maintenance in the dentate gyrus. At the behavioral level, a similar effect was observable, with neurofascin knock down preventing the detrimental impact of acute traumatic stress on hippocampus-dependent spatial memory retrieval in a water maze task. These findings suggest that reducing GABAergic inhibition specifically at the AIS synapses of the BLA alters amygdalo-hippocampal interactions such that it attenuates the adverse impact of acute stress exposure on cognition-related hippocampal functions.

Perturbation of GABAergic Synapses at the Axon Initial Segment of Basolateral Amygdala Induces Trans-regional Metaplasticity at the Medial Prefrontal Cortex.

GABAergic synapses in the basolateral amygdala (BLA) play an important role in fear memory generation. We have previously reported that reduction in GABAergic synapses innervating specifically at the axon initial segment (AIS) of principal neurons of BLA, by neurofascin (NF) knockdown, impairs fear extinction. BLA is bidirectionally connected with the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), which is a key region involved in extinction of acquired fear memory. Here, we showed that reducing AIS GABAergic synapses within the BLA leads to impairment of synaptic plasticity in the BLA-mPFC pathway, as well as in the ventral subiculum (vSub)-mPFC pathway, which is independent of BLA involvement. The results suggest that the alteration within the BLA subsequently resulted in a form of trans-regional metaplasticity in the mPFC. In support of that notion, we observed that NF knockdown induced a severe deficit in behavioral flexibility as measured by reversal learning. Interestingly, reversal learning similar to extinction learning is an mPFC-dependent behavior. In agreement with that, measurement of the immediate-early gene, c-Fos immunoreactivity after reversal learning was reduced in the mPFC and BLA, supporting further the notion that the BLA GABAergic manipulation resulted in trans-regional metaplastic alterations within the mPFC.

GABAergic Synapses at the Axon Initial Segment of Basolateral Amygdala Projection Neurons Modulate Fear Extinction.

Inhibitory synaptic transmission in the amygdala has a pivotal role in fear learning and its extinction. However, the local circuits formed by GABAergic inhibitory interneurons within the amygdala and their detailed function in shaping these behaviors are not well understood. Here we used lentiviral-mediated knockdown of the cell adhesion molecule neurofascin in the basolateral amygdala (BLA) to specifically remove inhibitory synapses at the axon initial segment (AIS) of BLA projection neurons. Quantitative analysis of GABAergic synapse markers and measurement of miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents in BLA projection neurons after neurofascin knockdown ex vivo confirmed the loss of GABAergic input. We then studied the impact of this manipulation on anxiety-like behavior and auditory cued fear conditioning and its extinction as BLA related behavioral paradigms, as well as on long-term potentiation (LTP) in the ventral subiculum-BLA pathway in vivo. BLA knockdown of neurofascin impaired ventral subiculum-BLA-LTP. While this manipulation did not affect anxiety-like behavior and fear memory acquisition and consolidation, it specifically impaired extinction. Our findings indicate that modification of inhibitory synapses at the AIS of BLA projection neurons is sufficient to selectively impair extinction behavior. A better understanding of the role of distinct GABAergic synapses may provide novel and more specific targets for therapeutic interventions in extinction-based therapies.

Receptor tyrosine kinase EphA7 is required for interneuron connectivity at specific subcellular compartments of granule cells.

Neuronal transmission is regulated by the local circuitry which is composed of principal neurons targeted at different subcellular compartments by a variety of interneurons. However, mechanisms that contribute to the subcellular localisation and maintenance of GABAergic interneuron terminals are poorly understood. Stabilization of GABAergic synapses depends on clustering of the postsynaptic scaffolding protein gephyrin and its interaction with the guanine nucleotide exchange factor collybistin. Lentiviral knockdown experiments in adult rats indicated that the receptor tyrosine kinase EphA7 is required for the stabilisation of basket cell terminals on proximal dendritic and somatic compartments of granular cells of the dentate gyrus. EphA7 deficiency and concomitant destabilisation of GABAergic synapses correlated with impaired long-term potentiation and reduced hippocampal learning. Reduced GABAergic innervation may be explained by an impact of EphA7 on gephyrin clustering. Overexpression or ephrin stimulation of EphA7 induced gephyrin clustering dependent on the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) which is an interaction partner of gephyrin. Gephyrin interactions with mTOR become released after mTOR activation while enhanced interaction with the guanine nucleotide exchange factor collybistin was observed in parallel. In conclusion, EphA7 regulates gephyrin clustering and the maintenance of inhibitory synaptic connectivity via mTOR signalling.

Dentate Gyrus Local Circuit is Implicated in Learning Under Stress--a Role for Neurofascin.

The inhibitory synapses at the axon initial segment (AIS) of dentate gyrus granular cells are almost exclusively innervated by the axo-axonic chandelier interneurons. However, the role of chandelier neurons in local circuitry is poorly understood and controversially discussed. The cell adhesion molecule neurofascin is specifically expressed at the AIS. It is crucially required for the stabilization of axo-axonic synapses. Knockdown of neurofascin is therefore a convenient tool to interfere with chandelier input at the AIS of granular neurons of the dentate gyrus. In the current study, feedback and feedforward inhibition of granule cells was measured in the dentate gyrus after knockdown of neurofascin and concomitant reduction of axo-axonic input. Results show increased feedback inhibition as a result of neurofascin knockdown, while feedforward inhibition remained unaffected. This suggests that chandelier neurons are predominantly involved in feedback inhibition. Neurofascin knockdown rats also exhibited impaired learning under stress in the two-way shuttle avoidance task. Remarkably, this learning impairment was not accompanied by differences in electrophysiological measurements of dentate gyrus LTP. This indicates that the local circuit may be involved in (certain types) of learning.

Organisation and control of neuronal connectivity and myelination by cell adhesion molecule neurofascin.

The neuronal cell adhesion molecule neurofascin is expressed in highly complex temporally and spatially regulated patterns. Accordingly, many different functions have been described including control of neurite outgrowth, clustering of protein complexes at the axon initial segments as well as at the nodes of Ranvier and axoglial contact formation at paranodal segments. At the molecular level, neurofascin provides a link between extracellular interactions of many different interaction partners and cytoskeletal components or signal transduction. Such interactions are subject to intimate regulation by alternative splicing and posttranslational modification. The versatile functional aspects of neurofascin interactions pose it at a central position for the shaping and maintenance of neural circuitry and synaptic contacts which are implicated in nervous system disorders.

Stress modulation of hippocampal activity--spotlight on the dentate gyrus.

The effects of stress on learning and memory are diverse, ranging from impairment to facilitation. Many studies emphasize the major role of the hippocampus, mainly its CA1 and CA3 areas, in the process of memory formation under emotional and stressful conditions. In the current review, we summarize work which suggests that the dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus is likely to play a pivotal role in defining the impact of stress on hippocampal functioning. We describethe effects of stress on long term potentiation (LTP) and local circuit activity in the DG and the role of the amygdala in mediating these effects. As one of the brain regions known to have a high rate of adult neurogenesis, the effects of stress on DG neurogenesis will also be reviewed. Finally, we discuss exposure to stress during juvenility and its influence on the adult DG. The DG is a dynamic structure which is susceptible to stress. Under stressful conditions, its response is variable and complex, much like the behavioral outcomes of such circumstances. It is likely to significantly contribute to the diverse effects of stress on memory formation.

Neurofascin: a switch between neuronal plasticity and stability.

Neurofascin (NF) is a cell surface protein belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily (IgSF). Different polypeptides of 186, 180, 166 and 155 kDa are generated by alternative splicing. Expression of these isoforms is temporally and spatially regulated and can be roughly grouped into embryonic, adult and glial expression. NF interacts with many different interaction partners both extra- and intracellularly. Interactions of NF166 and NF180 selectively regulate mechanisms of plasticity like neurite outgrowth and the formation postsynaptic components. By contrast, NF155 and NF186 confer stabilization of neural structures by interaction with voltage-gated sodium channels and ankyrinG at axon initial segments (AIS) or nodes of Ranvier as well as neuron-glia interactions at the paranodes. Alternatively spliced isoforms of neurofascin may therefore balance dynamic and stabilizing mechanisms of the CNS.

Neuroprotective and anti-oxidative effects of the hemodialysate actovegin on primary rat neurons in vitro.

The recently described therapeutic benefits of the hemodialysate actovegin on neuropathic symptoms in diabetic patients with symptomatic polyneuropathy suggest a neuroprotective activity of the drug. To elucidate the possible cellular mechanism of the pharmacological effects of actovegin, we investigated its effects on cultured primary rat neurons in vitro. Primary neurons were cultured for up to 10 days in the presence of increasing doses of actovegin (0.3-1,000 mg/l). Total cell number, dendrite length and the number of excitatory synapses, i.e., the amount of the synaptic V-Glut1 protein, were measured by immunocytochemistry followed by fluorescence microscopy. The apoptotic level in neurons after induction of apoptosis by amyloid peptide Aß(25-35) was assessed by the level of activated caspase-3. In addition, the capability of the neurons to diminish oxidative stress was assessed by measuring the cellular level of reactive oxygen species ROS in the presence of actovegin. Actovegin treatment yielded an increased maintenance of neuronal cells and total number of synapses and could lower the level of activated caspase-3 in a dose-dependent manner. Dendrite lengths were not significantly affected. In addition, actovegin reduced the cellular level of ROS in cultured neurons. The cellular effects observed suggest neuroprotective and anti-oxidative effects of the drug Actovegin(®), which could at least partially explain its therapeutic benefits.

The dual regulator Sufu integrates Hedgehog and Wnt signals in the early Xenopus embryo.

Hedgehog (Hh) and Wnt proteins are important signals implicated in several aspects of embryonic development, including the early development of the central nervous system. We found that Xenopus Suppressor-of-fused (XSufu) affects neural induction and patterning by regulating the Hh/Gli and Wnt/ß-catenin pathways. Microinjection of XSufu mRNA induced expansion of the epidermis at the expense of neural plate tissue and caused enlargement of the eyes. An antisense morpholino oligonucleotide against XSufu had the opposite effect. Interestingly, both gain- and loss-of-function experiments resulted in a posterior shift of brain markers, suggesting a biphasic effect of XSufu on anteroposterior patterning. XSufu blocked early Wnt/ß-catenin signaling, as indicated by the suppression of XWnt8-induced secondary axis formation in mRNA-injected embryos, and activation of Wnt target genes in XSufu-MO-injected ectodermal explants. We show that XSufu binds to XGli1 and Xß-catenin. In Xenopus embryos and mouse embryonic fibroblasts, Gli1 inhibits Wnt signaling under overexpression of ß-catenin, whereas ß-catenin stimulates Hh signaling under overexpression of Gli1. Notably, endogenous Sufu is critically involved in this crosstalk. The results suggest that XSufu may act as a common regulator of Hh and Wnt signaling and contribute to intertwining the two pathways.

The cell adhesion molecule neurofascin stabilizes axo-axonic GABAergic terminals at the axon initial segment.

Cell adhesion molecules regulate synapse formation and maintenance via transsynaptic contact stabilization involving both extracellular interactions and intracellular postsynaptic scaffold assembly. The cell adhesion molecule neurofascin is localized at the axon initial segment of granular cells in rat dentate gyrus, which is mainly targeted by chandelier cells. Lentiviral shRNA-mediated knockdown of neurofascin in adult rat brain indicates that neurofascin regulates the number and size of postsynaptic gephyrin scaffolds, the number of GABA(A) receptor clusters as well as presynaptic glutamate decarboxylase-positive terminals at the axon initial segment. By contrast, overexpression of neurofascin in hippocampal neurons increases gephyrin cluster size presumably via stimulation of fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 signaling pathways.

Analysis of non-canonical fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1) interaction reveals regulatory and activating domains of neurofascin.

Fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFRs) are important for many different mechanisms, including cell migration, proliferation, differentiation, and survival. Here, we show a new link between FGFR1 and the cell adhesion molecule neurofascin, which is important for neurite outgrowth. After overexpression in HEK293 cells, embryonal neurofascin isoform NF166 was able to associate with FGFR1, whereas the adult isoform NF186, differing from NF166 in additional extracellular sequences, was deficient. Pharmacological inhibitors and overexpression of dominant negative components of the FGFR signaling pathway pointed to the activation of FGFR1 after association with neurofascin in neurite outgrowth assays in chick tectal neurons and rat PC12-E2 cells. Both extra- and intracellular domains of embryonal neurofascin isoform NF166 were able to form complexes with FGFR1 independently. However, the cytosolic domain was both necessary and sufficient for the activation of FGFR1. Cytosolic serine residues 56 and 100 were shown to be essential for the neurite outgrowth-promoting activity of neurofascin, whereas both amino acid residues were dispensable for FGFR1 association. In conclusion, the data suggest a neurofascin intracellular domain, which activates FGFR1 for neurite outgrowth, whereas the extracellular domain functions as an additional, regulatory FGFR1 interaction domain in the course of development.