An allosteric pan-TEAD inhibitor blocks oncogenic YAP/TAZ signaling and overcomes KRAS G12C inhibitor resistance.

The Hippo pathway is a key growth control pathway that is conserved across species. The downstream effectors of the Hippo pathway, YAP (Yes-associated protein) and TAZ (transcriptional coactivator with PDZ-binding motif), are frequently activated in cancers to drive proliferation and survival. Based on the premise that sustained interactions between YAP/TAZ and TEADs (transcriptional enhanced associate domain) are central to their transcriptional activities, we discovered a potent small-molecule inhibitor (SMI), GNE-7883, that allosterically blocks the interactions between YAP/TAZ and all human TEAD paralogs through binding to the TEAD lipid pocket. GNE-7883 effectively reduces chromatin accessibility specifically at TEAD motifs, suppresses cell proliferation in a variety of cell line models and achieves strong antitumor efficacy in vivo. Furthermore, we uncovered that GNE-7883 effectively overcomes both intrinsic and acquired resistance to KRAS (Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene homolog) G12C inhibitors in diverse preclinical models through the inhibition of YAP/TAZ activation. Taken together, this work demonstrates the activities of TEAD SMIs in YAP/TAZ-dependent cancers and highlights their potential broad applications in precision oncology and therapy resistance.

Conditional Knockdown of Gene Expression in Cancer Cell Lines to Study the Recruitment of Monocytes/Macrophages to the Tumor Microenvironment.

siRNA and shRNA-mediated knock down (KD) methods of regulating gene expression are invaluable tools for understanding gene and protein function. However, in the case that the KD of the protein of interest has a lethal effect on cells or the anticipated effect of the KD is time-dependent, unconditional KD methods are not appropriate. Conditional systems are more suitable in these cases and have been the subject of much interest. These include Ecdysone-inducible overexpression systems, Cytochrome P-450 induction system1, and the tetracycline regulated gene expression systems. The tetracycline regulated gene expression system enables reversible control over protein expression by induction of shRNA expression in the presence of tetracycline. In this protocol, we present an experimental design using functional Tet-ON system in human cancer cell lines for conditional regulation of gene expression. We then demonstrate the use of this system in the study of tumor cell-monocyte interaction.

Mammalian farnesyltransferase α subunit regulates vacuolar protein sorting-associated protein 4A (Vps4A)--dependent intracellular trafficking through recycling endosomes.

The protein farnesyltransferase (FTase) mediates posttranslational modification of proteins with isoprenoid lipids. FTase is a heterodimer and although the ß subunit harbors the active site, it requires the α subunit for its activity. Here we explore the other functions of the FTase α subunit in addition to its established role in protein prenylation. We found that in the absence of the ß subunit, the α subunit of FTase forms a stable autonomous dimeric structure in solution. We identify interactors of FTase α using mass spectrometry, followed by rapid in vitro analysis using the Leishmania tarentolae cell - free system. Vps4A was validated for direct binding to the FTase α subunit both in vitro and in vivo. Analysis of the interaction with Vps4A in Hek 293 cells demonstrated that FTase α controls trafficking of transferrin receptor upstream of this protein. These results point to the existence of previously undetected biological functions of the FTase α subunit that includes control of intracellular membrane trafficking.

Placental lipase expression in pregnancies complicated by preeclampsia: a case-control study.

BACKGROUND: Preeclampsia (PE) is associated with maternal and neonatal morbidity and mortality. In PE, the physiological hyperlipidaemia of pregnancy is exaggerated. The purpose of this study was to examine the expression of adipose triglyceride lipase (ATGL), hormone sensitive lipase (HSL), lipoprotein lipase (LPL) and endothelial lipase (EL) in pregnancies complicated by PE. METHODS: Placentae were collected from 16 women with PE and 20 women with uncomplicated pregnancies matched for maternal prepregnancy BMI and gestational age of delivery. Gene and protein expression of the placental lipases were measured by Q-PCR and Western blot. DNA methylation of the promoter of LPL was assessed by bisulfite sequencing. Lipase localisation and activity were analysed. RESULTS: Gene expression of all lipases was significantly reduced, as was HSL protein level in women with PE. All lipases were localised to trophoblasts and endothelial cells in PE and control placentae. There was no difference in methylation of the LPL promoter between PE and control placentae. Lipase activity was not altered in placentae from women with PE. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that the decreased placental lipase gene but not protein expression or lipase activity, which is associated with late-onset PE is not a major contributor to the abnormal lipids seen in PE.

Placental fibroblast growth factor 21 is not altered in late-onset preeclampsia.

BACKGROUND: Preeclampsia (PE) is associated with alterations of placental function. The incidence of PE is higher in insulin resistant states. Women with PE have high circulating levels of the metabolic regulator fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21). FGF21 is synthesized in the placenta. The aim of this study was to compare the expression of FGF21, its receptors, downstream targets and transcriptional regulators in placental tissue from pregnancies with and without late-onset PE. Circulating FGF21 in maternal and cord blood was also studied. METHODS: mRNA expression was determined by semi-quantitative real-time PCR and normalized for cellular composition in 17 women with and 20 without PE. Protein expression was quantified by Western Blot. FGF21 levels were measured by ELISA in maternal and cord serum of ten mother-baby dyads per condition. RESULTS: Placental FGF21 mRNA and protein expression were similar in PE compared with control. Placental mRNA expression of the FGF receptors (1-4) and the co-receptor beta-Klotho was not different between the groups. There was no difference in the expression of the glucose transporters GLUT1, 3 or 4. PPAR-alpha but not PPAR-gamma expression was decreased in PE. Maternal FGF21 serum levels were not significantly different in PE. FGF21 was detected in cord blood of 6 infants (4 PE, 2 controls) but was undetectable in 14 infants. CONCLUSIONS: Late-onset PE is not associated with major changes to the expression of FGF21, its receptors or metabolic targets.

Towards the systematic mapping and engineering of the protein prenylation machinery in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Protein prenylation is a widespread and highly conserved eukaryotic post-translational modification that endows proteins with the ability to reversibly attach to intracellular membranes. The dynamic interaction of prenylated proteins with intracellular membranes is essential for their signalling functions and is frequently deregulated in disease processes such as cancer. As a result, protein prenylation has been pharmacologically targeted by numerous drug discovery programs, albeit with limited success. To a large extent, this can be attributed to an insufficient understanding of the interplay of different protein prenyltransferases and the combinatorial diversity of the prenylatable sequence space. Here, we report a high-throughput, growth-based genetic selection assay in Saccharomyces cerevisiae based on the Ras Recruitment System which, for the first time, has allowed us to create a comprehensive map of prenylatable protein sequences in S. cerevisiae. We demonstrate that potential prenylatable space is sparsely (6.2%) occupied leaving room for creation of synthetic orthogonal prenylatable sequences. To experimentally demonstrate that, we used the developed platform to engineer mutant farnesyltransferases that efficiently prenylate substrate motives that are not recognised by endogenous protein prenyltransferases. These uncoupled mutants can now be used as starting points for the systematic engineering of the eukaryotic protein prenylation machinery.

Placental lipases in pregnancies complicated by gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM).

Infants of women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) are more likely to be born large for gestational age with a higher percentage body fat. Elevated maternal lipids may contribute to this. Placental lipases such as lipoprotein lipase (LPL), endothelial lipase (EL) and hormone sensitive lipase (HSL) are involved in transferring lipids from mother to fetus. Previous studies of expression of these lipases in placentae in women with diabetes in pregnancy have reported divergent results. Intracellular lipases such as adipose triglyceride lipase (ATGL), and HSL are central to lipid droplet metabolism. The activities of these lipases are both influenced by Perilipin 1, and ATGL is also activated by a co-factor comparative gene identification-58 (CGI-58) and inhibited by G0/G1 switch gene 2 (GS02). None of these modifying factors or ATGL have been examined previously in placenta. The purpose of this study was therefore to examine the expression of ATGL, HSL, LPL, EL, as well as Perilipin 1, GS02 and CGI-58 in term pregnancies complicated by GDM. mRNA and protein expression of the lipases were measured in placentae from 17 women with GDM and 17 normoglycaemic pregnancies, matched for maternal BMI and gestational age of delivery. ATGL mRNA expression was increased and HSL mRNA expression reduced in placentae from GDM although there was no differences in protein expression of any of the lipases. All lipases were localised to trophoblasts and endothelial cells. The expression of Perilipin 1 and CGI-58 mRNA was increased and GS02 not altered in GDM. These results suggest that there is no difference in expression in these four lipases between GDM and normoglycaemic placentae, and therefore altered lipid transfer via these lipases does not contribute to large for gestational age in infants of women with GDM.

Increased placental expression of fibroblast growth factor 21 in gestational diabetes mellitus.

BACKGROUND: Fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) can regulate glucose and lipid metabolism. The placenta actively synthesizes and secretes many hormones, but it is unknown whether this includes FGF21. This study aimed to analyze the placental expression of FGF21 in women with or without gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). METHODS: FGF21 and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-α mRNA and protein expression were measured in the placentae of 20 women with and 18 without GDM. mRNA expression of PPARα, FGF receptors 1-4, the coreceptor ß-klotho, and glucose transporter (GLUT)-1, -3, and -4 was investigated. Maternal and fetal circulating FGF21 levels were assessed in 10 mother-baby dyads per condition. RESULTS: FGF21 was expressed in the placenta and its mRNA expression increased in women with GDM [10.75 (interquartile range 3.28-125.6 AU)] vs control [0.83 (0.22-4.78), P < .001], as is its protein expression [GDM 2.89 (1.44-5.10)] vs control [0.42 (0.05-1.98), P < .05]. PPARα mRNA but not protein expression was increased in GDM [2.94 (0.70-7.26)] vs control [0.99 (0.43-2.17), P < .05] and was positively correlated to FGF21 mRNA expression (ρ = 0.43, P < .01). Placental mRNA expression of FGF receptors and GLUT1 was unchanged, and ß-klotho, GLUT3, and GLUT4 showed increased expression in GDM. Maternal circulating FGF21 levels were similar [GDM 323 (75-921) vs control 269 (49-731) pg/mL, P = .81]. FGF21 was undetected in fetal cord blood. CONCLUSIONS: FGF21 is expressed in the placenta and its expression is increased in GDM. The absence of FGF21 in fetal cord blood suggests that neither placental FGF21 nor maternal circulating FGF21 is secreted into the fetal circulation. Placental FGF21 may be a regulator of placental metabolism.

Leishmania cell-free protein expression system.

Cell-free protein expression is an important tool for a rapid production, engineering and labeling of recombinant proteins. However the complex protocols for preparation of eukaryotic cell-free protein expression systems result in high manufacturing costs and limit their utility. Recently we reported a novel cell-free expression system based on the lysate of a fermentable protozoan Leishmania tarentolae. Herein we describe a protocol for high throughput protein expression using Leishmania cell-free lysate. The protocol combines PCR-based synthesis and engineering of translation templates with a combined transcription-translation system. The protocol is adapted to multiwell plate format and allows translation of large protein libraries. In the presented example we translate in vitro and isolate a nearly complete complement of mammalian Rab GTPases. Further applications and developments of the system are discussed.

Structural and thermodynamic analysis of the GFP:GFP-nanobody complex.

The green fluorescent protein (GFP)-nanobody is a single-chain VHH antibody domain developed with specific binding activity against GFP and is emerging as a powerful tool for isolation and cellular engineering of fluorescent protein fusions in many different fields of biological research. Using X-ray crystallography and isothermal titration calorimetry, we determine the molecular details of GFP:GFP-nanobody complex formation and explain the basis of high affinity and at the same time high specificity of protein binding. Although the GFP-nanobody can also bind YFP, it cannot bind the closely related CFP or other fluorescent proteins from the mFruit series. CFP differs from GFP only within the central chromophore and at one surface amino acid position, which lies in the binding interface. Using this information, we have engineered a CFP variant (I146N) that is also able to bind the GFP-nanobody with high affinity, thus extending the toolbox of genetically encoded fluorescent probes that can be isolated using the GFP-nanobody.