Managing Impending Nonsevere Hypoglycemia With Oral Carbohydrates in Type 1 Diabetes: The REVERSIBLE Trial.

OBJECTIVE: Current guidelines recommend initiating treatment for nonsevere (NS) hypoglycemia with 15 g carbohydrates (CHO) at 15-min intervals when blood glucose (BG) reaches <70 mg/dL (3.9 mmol/L). Despite this recommendation, NS hypoglycemia management remains challenging for individuals living with type 1 diabetes (T1D). We aimed to assess the efficacy of 15 g CHO at higher BG levels. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A total of 29 individuals with T1D participated in an open-label crossover study. After an inpatient subcutaneous insulin-induced decrease in BG in the fasting state, 16 g CHO was administered orally at a plasma glucose (PG) of <70 (3.9), ≤80 (4.5), or ≤90 mg/dL (5.0 mmol/L). The primary outcome was time spent in hypoglycemia (<70 mg/dL) after initial CHO intake. RESULTS: When comparing the <70 (control) with the ≤80 and ≤90 mg/dL treatment groups, 100 vs. 86 (P = 0.1201) vs. 34% (P < 0.0001) of participants reached hypoglycemia, respectively. These hypoglycemic events lasted 26.0 ± 12.6 vs. 17.9 ± 14.7 (P = 0.026) vs. 7.1 ± 11.8 min (P = 0.002), with a PG nadir of 56.57 ± 9.91 vs. 63.60 ± 7.93 (P = 0.008) vs. 73.51 ± 9.37 mg/dL (P = 0.002), respectively. In the control group, 69% of participants required more than one treatment to reach or maintain normoglycemia (≥70 mg/dL), compared with 52% in the ≤80 mg/dL group and 31% in the ≤90 mg/dL group, with no significant rebound hyperglycemia (>180 mg/dL) within the first hour. CONCLUSIONS: For some impending NS hypoglycemia episodes, individuals with TID could benefit from CHO intake at a higher BG level.

Transcriptome Analysis of Human Reninomas as an Approach to Understanding Juxtaglomerular Cell Biology.

Renin, a key component in the regulation of blood pressure in mammals, is produced by the rare and highly specialized juxtaglomerular cells of the kidney. Chronic stimulation of renin release results in a recruitment of new juxtaglomerular cells by the apparent conversion of adjacent smooth muscle cells along the afferent arterioles. Because juxtaglomerular cells rapidly dedifferentiate when removed from the kidney, their developmental origin and the mechanism that explains their phenotypic plasticity remain unclear. To overcome this limitation, we have performed RNA expression analysis on 4 human renin-producing tumors. The most highly expressed genes that were common between the reninomas were subsequently used for in situ hybridization in kidneys of 5-day-old mice, adult mice, and adult mice treated with captopril. From the top 100 genes, 10 encoding for ligands were selected for further analysis. Medium of human embryonic kidney 293 cells transfected with the mouse cDNA encoding these ligands was applied to (pro)renin-synthesizing As4.1 cells. Among the ligands, only platelet-derived growth factor B reduced the medium and cellular (pro)renin levels, as well as As4.1 renin gene expression. In addition, platelet-derived growth factor B-exposed As4.1 cells displayed a more elongated and aligned shape with no alteration in viability. This was accompanied by a downregulated expression of α-smooth muscle actin and an upregulated expression of interleukin-6, suggesting a phenotypic shift from myoendocrine to inflammatory. Our results add 36 new genes to the list that characterize renin-producing cells and reveal a novel role for platelet-derived growth factor B as a regulator of renin-synthesizing cells.

General lysosomal hydrolysis can process prorenin accurately.

Renin, an aspartyl protease that catalyzes the rate-limiting step of the renin-angiotensin system, is first synthesized as an inactive precursor, prorenin. Prorenin is activated by the proteolytic removal of an amino terminal prosegment in the dense granules of the juxtaglomerular (JG) cells of the kidney by one or more proteases whose identity is uncertain but commonly referred to as the prorenin-processing enzyme (PPE). Because several extrarenal tissues secrete only prorenin, we tested the hypothesis that the unique ability of JG cells to produce active renin might be explained by the existence of a PPE whose expression is restricted to JG cells. We found that inducing renin production by the mouse kidney by up to 20-fold was not associated with the concomitant induction of candidate PPEs. Because the renin-containing granules of JG cells also contain several lysosomal hydrolases, we engineered mouse Ren1 prorenin to be targeted to the classical vesicular lysosomes of cultured HEK-293 cells, where it was accurately processed and stored. Furthermore, we found that HEK cell lysosomes hydrolyzed any artificial extensions placed on the protein and that active renin was extraordinarily resistant to proteolytic degradation. Altogether, our results demonstrate that accurate processing of prorenin is not restricted to JG cells but can occur in classical vesicular lysosomes of heterologous cells. The implication is that renin production may not require a specific PPE but rather can be achieved by general hydrolysis in the lysosome-like granules of JG cells.

Primary follicular lymphoma of the testis in children and adolescents.

This study reports 6 cases of primary follicular lymphoma of the testis (PFLT) in children and adolescents correlated with clinical presentation, pathologic features, treatment, and outcome. All 6 patients (age, 3 to 16 y; median, 4 y) had PFLT grade 3 with disease limited to the testis, completely resected and treated with 2 courses of chemotherapy (cyclophosphamide, vincristine, prednisone, doxorubicin). Event-free survival was 100% (follow-up: median, 73 mo; mean, 53 mo; range, 6 to 96 mo). In conclusion, clinical outcome in children and adolescents with PFLT is excellent with treatment including complete surgical resection and 2 courses of cyclophosphamide, vincristine, prednisone, doxorubicin.

Cathepsin B is not the processing enzyme for mouse prorenin.

Renin, an aspartyl protease that catalyzes the rate-limiting step in the renin-angiotensin system (RAS), is proteolytically activated by a second protease [referred to as the prorenin processing enzyme (PPE)] before its secretion from the juxtaglomerular cells of the kidney. Although several enzymes are capable of activating renin in vitro, the leading candidate for the PPE in the kidney is cathepsin B (CTSB) due to is colocalization with the renin precursor (prorenin) in juxtaglomerular cell granules and because of its site-selective activation of human prorenin both in vitro and in transfected tissue culture cell models. To verify the role of CTSB in prorenin processing in vivo, we tested the ability of CTSB-deficient (CTSB-/-) mice to generate active renin. CTSB-/- mice do not exhibit any overt symptoms (renal malformation, preweaning mortality) typical of an RAS deficiency and have normal levels of circulating active renin, which, like those in control animals, rise more than 15-fold in response to pharmacologic inhibition of the RAS. The mature renin enzyme detected in kidney lysates of CTSB-/- mice migrates at the same apparent molecular weight as that in control mice, and the processing to active renin is not affected by chloroquine treatment of the animals. Finally, the distribution and morphology of renin-producing cells in the kidney is normal in CTSB-/- mice. In conclusion, CTSB-deficient mice exhibit no differences compared with controls in their ability to generate active renin, and our results do not support CTSB as the PPE in mice.

Chronic increases in circulating prorenin are not associated with renal or cardiac pathologies.

Elevated levels of circulating prorenin, the precursor of renin, have been reported to precede the appearance of microvascular complications in diabetes mellitus. Although several studies using animal models have attempted to address the link between elevated prorenin and the tissue remodeling and damage associated with both hypertension and diabetes mellitus, the results have been contradictory, and the mechanism whereby prorenin might contribute to these pathologies remains a subject of debate. To directly test the role of prorenin in these pathologies, we generated transgenic mice with selective increases (13- to 66-fold) in circulating native or active site-mutated prorenin. Systolic blood pressure was either unchanged or increased (+25 mm Hg) in native prorenin-expressing mice, whereas the mice expressing active site-mutated prorenin showed no significant differences in systolic blood pressure compared with control animals. There was no increase in cardiac fibrosis or renal glomerular sclerosis in any of the transgenic animals tested, even at an advanced age (18 months). Captopril (an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor) rapidly normalized blood pressure of hyperproreninemic mice, whereas infusion of the putative antagonist of the prorenin receptor (handle region peptide) had no effect. These results suggest that the primary consequence of chronic elevations in circulating prorenin is an increase in blood pressure and do not support a role for prorenin as the primary causative agent in cardiac fibrosis or renal glomerular injury. The lack of effect seen with active site-mutated prorenin and the efficacy of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition are also consistent with prorenin acting through the generation of angiotensin II to raise blood pressure.

Functional and structural characterization of a dense core secretory granule sorting domain from the PC1/3 protease.

Several peptide hormones are initially synthesized as inactive precursors. It is only on entry of these prohormones and their processing proteases into dense core secretory granules (DCSGs) that the precursors are cleaved to generate their active forms. Prohormone convertase (PC)1/3 is a processing protease that is targeted to DCSGs. The signal for targeting PC1/3 to DCSGs resides in its carboxy-terminal tail (PC1/3(617-753)), where 3 regions (PC1/3(617-625), PC1/3(665-682), and PC1/3(711-753)) are known to aid in sorting and membrane association. In this article, we have determined a high-resolution structure of the extreme carboxy-terminal sorting domain, PC1/3(711-753) in micelles by NMR spectroscopy. PC1/3(711-753) contains 2 alpha helices located between residues 722-728 and 738-750. Functional assays demonstrate that the second helix (PC1/3(738-750)) is necessary and sufficient to target a constitutively secreted protein to granules, and that L(745) anchors a hydrophobic patch that is critical for sorting. Also, we demonstrate that calcium binding by the second helix of PC1/3(711-753) promotes aggregation of the domain via the hydrophobic patch centered on L(745). These results provide a structure-function analysis of a DCSG-sorting domain, and reveal the importance of a hydrophobic patch and calcium binding in controlling the sorting of proteins containing alpha helices to DCSGs.

PC1/3, PC2 and PC5/6A are targeted to dense core secretory granules by a common mechanism.

There are seven members of the proprotein convertase (PC) family of secreted serine proteases that cleave their substrates at basic amino acids, thereby activating a variety of hormones, growth factors, and viruses. PC1/3, PC2 and PC5/6A are the only members of the PC family that are targeted to dense core secretory granules, where they carry out the processing of proteins that are secreted from the cell in a regulated manner. Previous studies have identified alpha-helices in the C-termini of the PC1/3 and PC2 proteases that are required for this subcellular targeting. In the current study, we demonstrate that a predicted alpha-helix in the C-terminus of PC5/6A is also critical for the ability of this domain to target a heterologous protein to the regulated secretory pathway of mouse endocrine AtT-20 cells. Analysis of the subcellular distribution of fusion proteins containing the C-terminal domains of PC1/3, PC2 and PC5/6A confirmed that all three domains have the capacity to redirect a constitutively secreted protein to the granule-containing cytoplasmic extensions. Analysis of the predicted structures formed by these three granule-sorting helices shows a correlation between their granule-sorting efficiency and the clustering of hydrophobic amino acids in their granule-targeting helices.

Chemotherapy in patients with teratoma with malignant transformation.

OBJECTIVE: Germ-cell tumours (GCTs) with a non-GCT malignant component are a unique and rare phenomenon called teratoma with malignant transformation (TMT). The only published series of patients with TMT treated with chemotherapy comprised 10 patients. We report here our experience in treating 14 patients with TMT. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Sarcoma was identified in 10 of 14 patients, with rhabdomyosarcoma ranking first (n=4). Other histological types included adenocarcinoma (n=3) and bronchoalveolar carcinoma (n=1). Immunohistochemistry was performed to help in identifying the malignant non-GCT component. RESULTS: Primary treatment consisted of surgery alone in 4 patients. The remaining 10 patients received first-line cisplatin-based chemotherapy with resection of residual masses (n=5): 4 patients had a complete response and 5 had a partial response. Overall, 9 patients developed a relapse with a median time of 84 mo (range: 6-168). At relapse, 8 patients received a chemotherapy regimen directed to the non-GCT component. Four of these patients achieved a partial response. With a median follow-up of 59 mo (range: 3-180), 4 of 14 patients are alive, including 3 who are disease-free. CONCLUSION: To our knowledge, this is by far the largest reported European series of chemotherapy in TMT. Although TMT has a poor prognosis compared to GCT, its management may be improved by adapted chemotherapy associated with surgical resection of residual masses.

A hydrophobic patch in a charged alpha-helix is sufficient to target proteins to dense core secretory granules.

Many endocrine and neuroendocrine cells contain specialized secretory organelles called dense core secretory granules. These organelles are the repository of proteins and peptides that are secreted in a regulated manner when the cell receives a physiological stimulus. The targeting of proteins to these secretory granules is crucial for the generation of certain peptide hormones, including insulin and ACTH. Although previous work has demonstrated that proteins destined to a variety of cellular locations, including secretory granules, contain targeting sequences, no single consensus sequence for secretory granule-sorting signals has emerged. We have shown previously that alpha-helical domains in the C-terminal tail of the prohormone convertase PC1/3 play an important role in the ability of this region of the protein to direct secretory granule targeting (Jutras, I. Seidah, N. G., and Reudelhuber, T. L. (2000) J. Biol. Chem. 275, 40337-40343). In this study, we show that a variety of alpha-helical domains are capable of directing a heterologous secretory protein to granules. By testing a series of synthetic alpha-helices, we also demonstrate that the presence of charged (either positive or negative) amino acids spatially segregated from a hydrophobic patch in the alpha-helices of secretory proteins likely plays a critical role in the ability of these structures to direct secretory granule sorting.

Modulation of secretory granule-targeting efficiency by cis and trans compounding of sorting signals.

Several protein domains acting through seemingly different mechanisms have been reported to have the capacity to target proteins to dense core secretory granules. Because proteins enter secretory granules with different efficiencies and because some of these proteins contain more than one granule-targeting motif, we have investigated whether compounding sorting signals could alter the efficiency of protein entry into secretory granules. In the current study we demonstrate that a paired basic cleavage site from human prorenin and an alpha-helix-containing secretory granule-sorting signal from the prohormone convertase PC1/3 can synergize to increase granule-sorting efficiency not only when located on the same protein, but also when located on distinct proteins that associate in the secretory pathway.

Negative preclinical results with stealth nanospheres-encapsulated Doxorubicin in an orthotopic murine brain tumor model.

Previous results have shown that PEG-coated poly(hexadecylcyanoacrylate) (PEG-PHDCA) nanospheres displayed a significant accumulation within an orthotopic 9L gliosarcoma model, after i.v. administration to rats. Hence, the aim of the present study was to evaluate in the same model the pre-clinical efficacy of this carrier when loaded with Doxorubicin, an anticancer drug which poorly distributes in the CNS. Free and nanospheres-encapsulated Doxorubicin were administered with a multiple dose treatment. Their maximum tolerated dose (MTD) and increase in life span were respectively assessed in healthy and intracranially 9L-bearing rats. A comparative biodistribution study of Doxorubicin-loaded and unloaded PEG-PHDCA nanospheres was also performed in the tumor-bearing group. The results showed that the cumulative MTD of nanoparticulate doxorubicin was 1.5 times higher than this of free Doxorubicin. Nevertheless, encapsulated Doxorubicin was unable to elicit a better therapeutic response in the 9L gliosarcoma. Biodistribution study revealed that the Doxorubicin-loaded nanospheres accumulated to a 2.5-fold lesser extent in the 9L tumor as compared to the unloaded nanospheres and that they were mainly localized in the lungs and the spleen. Such a typical profile indicated aggregation with plasma proteins as a consequence of the positive surface charge of these loaded particles; this ionic interaction resulting from drug encapsulation was mainly responsible for 9L treatment failure.

In vivo treatment with CPT-11 leads to differentiation of neuroblastoma xenografts and topoisomerase I alterations.

Topoisomerase I inhibitors, such as CPT-11, are potent anticancer drugs against neuroblastoma (NB). Differentiating agents, such as retinoids, improve the survival of children with metastatic NB. To characterize the biological effects associated with exposure to CPT-11 in vivo, athymic mice bearing a human NB xenograft, named IGR-NB8 and characterized as an immature NB with poor prognostic markers, were treated with CPT-11. Prolonged stable disease was observed, resulting in an overall tumor growth delay of 115 days. During treatment, tumors differentiated into ganglioneuroblastomas (GGNB), which reverted into an immature phenotype when treatment was discontinued. In contrast, 13-cis retinoic acid failed to induce differentiation of IGR-NB8 in vivo. Tumor differentiation was associated with decreased N-myc expression, induction of p73 expression in the perinuclear area and cytoplasm, and a dramatic 35-fold decrease in topoisomerase I (topo I) catalytic activity. The full-length Mr 100,000 topo I protein was present in both pre and post-treatment immature NB xenografts. In contrast, differentiated GGNBs did not contain the Mr 100,000 protein but an intense Mr 48,000 topo I fragment. Furthermore, redistribution of the Mr 48,000 and 68,000 forms to the cytoplasm was observed in differentiated tumors. The same pattern of topo I expression and catalytic activity was observed in NBs and GGNBs obtained from pediatric patients. Our data suggest that prolonged in vivo exposure to CPT-11 induces differentiation of NB xenografts, which is associated with truncation of the topo I enzyme, relocation of the degraded forms to the cytoplasm, and decreased catalytic activity.

Dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans, giant cell fibroblastoma, and hybrid lesions in children: clinicopathologic comparative analysis of 28 cases with molecular data--a study from the French Federation of Cancer Centers Sarcoma Group.

The clinicopathologic and immunohistochemical features of 28 dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans (DFSP), giant cell fibroblastomas (GCFs), and hybrid lesions occurring in children are presented, including molecular data for seven of them. There were 19 pure adult-type DFSP (9 male and 10 female patients aged between a few days [neonate] and 13 years, median 7 years), 5 pure GCF (all males aged from 2 to 8 years, median 4 years), and 4 hybrid tumors (all males aged from 1 to 4 years, median 2.5 years). Tumor locations in pure adult-type DFSP included the trunk (6) and lower (11) and upper (2) limbs. Pure GCFs were observed on the trunk (4) and knee (1), and hybrid lesions on the trunk (2) and lower (1) and upper (1) extremities. Tumor size (n = 20) ranged from 0.6 to 5 cm (median 2 cm). Histologically, pure DFSP presented as monotonous and infiltrative, low-grade, dermal/hypodermal storiform spindle cell proliferations, sparing adnexal structures. GCF showed a dense fibrous to myxoid matrix containing slender wavy spindle cells and multinucleated giant stromal cells often lining angiectoid spaces. Hybrid lesions showed varying combinations of DFSP and GCF areas. Mitotic activity ranged from 1 to 3 mitoses per 10 high power fields. All tumors were diffusely positive for vimentin and CD34 but negative for smooth muscle actin, desmin, epithelial membrane antigen, and cytokeratins; one pure adult-type DFSP was also S-100 protein positive; <1% of nuclei were Ki67 (Mib-1) positive. One karyotyped adult-type DFSP showed an unbalanced t(17;22) (q22;q13) translocation. Multiplex RT-PCR analysis and sequencing of PCR products in seven cases showed gene fusion transcripts in two pure DFSP, two pure GCFs, and one hybrid lesion. Results were uncertain in one pure GCF; one adult-type DFSP was negative. Treatment procedures were known for 27 patients, consisting of 16 wide excisions and 11 marginal excisions. Follow-up information on 15 widely excised tumors (median 24 months; range 5-144 months) showed no recurrence. Five of six marginally excised lesions with available follow up recurred 2 months to 6 years (median 2 years) after initial surgery; all but one were cured by wide reexcision. None of the tumors metastasized. In conclusion, this study emphasizes 1) the occurrence of adult-type DFSP in children, 2) the close relationship between DFSP and GCF clinically, histologically, and molecularly, 3) the excellent prognostic of these lesions if widely excised, and 4) the diagnostic usefulness of RT-PCR analyses in detecting the gene fusion transcripts resulting from the t(17;22) (q22;q13) in paraffin-embedded tissues.

[Atypical mesoblastic nephroma: histopathological entity or specific anatomoclinical form?]. / Le néphrome mésoblastique cellulaire ou atypique: entité histopathologique ou forme anatomo-clinique particulière?

Atypical mesoblastic nephroma is a rare kidney tumor mostly which occurred in early infancy. We describe two cases of atypical mesoblastic nephroma diagnosed in infants aged respectively 2 and 3 months. The tumors were completely removed and surgical margins were histologically free of disease. The two patients are well 14 and 9 months after surgery. Microscopically, the tumor was characterized by a densely cellular proliferation, high mitotic levels, cystic degeneration and necrosis. In the literature, the prognostic is good in patients aged fewer than 3 months and in cases in which the surgical removal was complete.