Effects of isoenergetic overfeeding of either carbohydrate or fat in young men.

Ten pairs of normal men were overfed by 5 MJ/d for 21 d with either a carbohydrate-rich or a fat-rich diet (C- and F-group). The two subjects in each pair were requested to follow each other throughout the day to ensure similar physical activity and were otherwise allowed to maintain normal daily life. The increase in body weight, fat free mass and fat mass showed great variation, the mean increases being 1.5 kg, 0.6 kg and 0.9 kg respectively. No significant differences between the C- and F-group were observed. Heat production during sleep did not change during overfeeding. The RQ during sleep was 0.86 and 0.78 in the C- and F-group respectively. The accumulated faecal loss of energy, DM, carbohydrate and protein was significantly higher in the C- compared with the F-group (30, 44, 69 and 51% higher respectively), whereas the fat loss was the same in the two groups. N balance was not different between the C- and F-group and was positive. Fractional contribution from hepatic de novo lipogenesis, as measured by mass isotopomer distribution analysis after administration of [1-(13)C]acetate, was 0.20 and 0.03 in the C-group and the F-group respectively. Absolute hepatic de novo lipogenesis in the C-group was on average 211 g per 21 d. Whole-body de novo lipogenesis, as obtained by the difference between fat mass increase and dietary fat available for storage, was positive in six of the ten subjects in the C-group (mean 332 (SEM 191)g per 21 d). The change in plasma leptin concentration was positively correlated with the change in fat mass. Thus, fat storage during overfeeding of isoenergetic amounts of diets rich in carbohydrate or in fat was not significantly different, and carbohydrates seemed to be converted to fat by both hepatic and extrahepatic lipogenesis.

[Effects of excessive isocaloric intake of either carbohydrate or fat on body composition, fat mass, de novo lipogenesis and energy expenditure in normal young men]. / Virkninger af isokalorisk overindtagelse af kulhydrat eller fedt på legemsvaegt, fedtmasse, de novo lipogenese og energiomsaetning hos normale unge maend.

Ten pairs of normal young men were overfed by 5 MJ per day for 21 days with either a carbohydrate-rich or a fat-rich diet (C- and F-group). The two subjects of a pair were requested to follow each other throughout the day to ensure similar physical activity. The increase in body weight and fat mass were not significantly different between the C- and the F-group. Heat production during sleep did not change during overfeeding. The accumulated faecal loss of energy, dry matter, carbohydrate and protein was significantly higher in the C- than in the F-group. Hepatic de novo lipogenesis was 212 g per 21 days in the C-group and was too low to be determined in the F-group. Whole body de novo lipogenesis was positive in six of the ten subjects in the C-group (mean: 332 g per 21 days). It is concluded that the increase in body weight and fat mass during overfeeding of isocaloric amounts of diets rich in carbohydrate or in fat was not significantly different, and that surplus of carbohydrate seemed to be converted to fat both by hepatic and extrahepatic de novo lipogenesis.

Water-balance response to salt loads in the toad Bufo bufo: independence of hypophysial pars nervosa function.

1. In water, injection of 1 ml of 1 mol/l NaCl/100 g body mass increased the rates of cutaneous water uptake and reduced the rates of bladder urine accumulation both in unoperated and sham operated controls and in toads with denervated or extirpated neuro-intermediate lobe. 2. This initial antidiuretic effect of the salt load gradually changed to a diuretic effect, when the volume expansion caused by cutaneous water uptake overrode the effect of increased osmolarity. 3. In a saturated atmosphere, injections of 0.3 or 0.5 ml of 0.7 mol/l NaCl/toad (mean body mass 33 g) reduced urine accumulation. Only to the largest load was the antidiuretic response significantly smaller in the toads with denervated or extirpated neuro-intermediate lobe. 4. It is argued that the reduced antidiuretic response was due to interference with pars distalis function rather than caused by lack of pars nervosa function.

Visual performance of the toad (Bufo bufo) at low light levels: retinal ganglion cell responses and prey-catching accuracy.

The accuracy of toad snapping towards moving worm dummies under various levels of dim illumination (from absolute threshold to "moonlight") was video-recorded and related to spike responses of retinal ganglion cells exposed to equivalent stimuli. Some toads (at ca. 16 degrees C) successfully snapped at dummies that produced only one photoisomerization per 50 rods per second in the retina, in good agreement with thresholds of sensitive retinal ganglion cells. One factor underlying such high sensitivity is extensive temporal summation by the ganglion cells. This, however, is inevitably accompanied by very long response latencies (around 3 s near threshold), whereby the information reaching the brain shows the dummy in a position where it was several seconds earlier. Indeed, as the light was dimmed, snaps were displaced successively further to the rear of the dummy, finally missing it. The results in weak but clearly supra-threshold illumination indicate that snaps were aimed at the advancing head as seen by the brain, but landed further backwards in proportion to the retinal latency. Near absolute threshold, however, accuracy was "too good", suggesting that the animal had recourse to a neural representation of the regularly moving dummies to correct for the slowness of vision.

Plasma estradiol and progesterone after hypophysectomy and substitution with pituitary in female sea lampreys (Petromyzon marinus).

This study investigated plasma steroid concentrations 1 week after total hypophysectomy in adult female sea lampreys. Plasma estradiol significantly decreased (to 1.19 +/- 0.17 SE ng/ml) following hypophysectomy and was elevated (to 1.91 +/- 0.11 ng/ml) to a value similar to controls by a single injection of two pituitary equivalents in adult female sea lampreys in the stage of final maturation. Plasma progesterone also significantly decreased (to 69 +/- 10 pg/ml) following hypophysectomy and was elevated (to 183 +/- 71 pg/ml) to a value not different from uninjected controls by a single injection of two pituitary equivalents in females. Injection of two pituitary equivalents did not affect plasma estradiol in intact lampreys but surprisingly decreased plasma progesterone (to 67 +/- 14 pg/ml) compared to saline-injected intact lampreys (318 +/- 142 pg/ml). The decrease in estradiol and progesterone after hypophysectomy and their normalization after injection of pituitaries support the concept that the secretion of estradiol and progesterone is stimulated by gonadotropin or other pituitary hormones.

Low retinal noise in animals with low body temperature allows high visual sensitivity.

The weakest pulse of light a human can detect sends about 100 photons through the pupil and produces 10-20 rhodopsin isomerizations in a small retinal area. It has been postulated that we cannot see single photons because of a retinal noise arising from randomly occurring thermal isomerizations. Direct recordings have since demonstrated the existence of electrical 'dark' rod events indistinguishable from photoisomerization signals. Their mean rate of occurrence is roughly consistent with the 'dark light' in psychophysical threshold experiments, and their thermal parameters justify an identification with thermal isomerizations. In the retina of amphibians, a small proportion of sensitive ganglion cells have a performance-limiting noise that is low enough to be well accounted for by these events. Here we study the performance of dark-adapted toads and frogs and show that the performance limit of visually guided behaviour is also set by thermal isomerizations. As visual sensitivity limited by thermal events should rise when the temperature falls, poikilothermous vertebrates living at low temperatures should then reach light sensitivities unattainable by mammals and birds with optical factors equal. Comparison of different species at different temperatures shows a correlation between absolute threshold intensities and estimated thermal isomerization rates in the retina.

The role of hormones in initiation of sexual maturation in male river lampreys (Lampetra fluviatilis, L.): gonadotropin and testosterone.

Previous experiments with implantation of sex hormones indicated that development of increased sensitivity toward sex hormones in the peripheral tissues responsible for secondary sex characteristics is an essential feature in initiation of normal sexual maturation. The extent to which this sensitivity change depends on hormones from the pituitary gland was investigated by implanting testosterone pellets into 15 hypophysectomized (pro- and mesoadenohypophysis) immature male lampreys. Fin changes and growth of the urogenital papilla were elicited by testosterone in all hypophysectomized males, but were delayed in some in comparison with intact males. The testosterone-stimulated rate of growth of the urogenital papilla was slow in the hypophysectomized lampreys, but eventually normal size (8 mm) was reached. In untreated hypophysectomized lampreys the liver never turns green as it does in the majority of intact males, but testosterone induced green livers in 11 out of 14 hypophysectomized males. Thus it appears that the development in peripheral tissues of sensitivity toward sex hormones can take place without the presence of the pro- and mesoadenohypophysis. Furthermore, together with previous results obtained by hypophysectomy, the results support the idea that gonadotropin from the pro- and mesoadenohypophysis of lampreys is needed for the whole process of sexual maturation to occur, stimulates the rate of development, and allows simultaneous readiness for spawning in the population by especially stimulating slowly developing lampreys. On the basis of recent results and previous data it is suggested that the metaadenohypophysis and the interrenal cells also may be involved in initiation of sexual maturation.

Effect of gonadectomy and hypophysectomy on plasma steroid levels in male and female lampreys (Lampetra fluviatilis, L.).

Testosterone, estradiol, and dehydroepiandrosterone (T, E2, and DHA) were measured by RIA in plasma samples from three groups of sexually immature male and female (male, female) river lampreys: (I) intact, (II) gonadectomized, or (III) with pro- and mesoadenohypophysis removed (hypophysectomized). T levels were around 0.1 ng/ml in both I male and I female and increased significantly in all operated groups, especially in II male, to 1.2 ng/ml. E2 levels were between 0.7 and 1 ng/ml in I male and I female and were significantly elevated only in II male to 2.0 ng/ml. DHA levels showed significant decreases, from around 0.9 ng/ml in I male and I female, in both operated groups. It is suggested that T and E2 are secreted from a nongonadal source in both sexes and then converted to biologically active sex hormones in the gonads. Therefore T and E2 do not decrease, and may even accumulate, in the blood after gonadectomy. Since extirpation of the pro- and mesoadenohypophysis was not followed by a decrease in T and E2, their secretion may be stimulated by a hormone from another part of the pituitary such as the metaadenohypophysis.

The haematopoietic supraneural organ of adult, sexually immature river lampreys (Lampetra fluviatilis [L.] Gray) with particular reference to azurophil leucocytes.

The haematopoietic tissue in the supraneural organ of the freshwater river lamprey (Lampetra fluviatilis L. Gray) was studied in sexually immature animals. Besides erythro- and granulopoietic elements, macrophages, reticular cells, fibroblasts and glycogen-rich fat cells were seen. Developing granulocytes of the lamprey contain one type of azurophil granules originating from small cytoplasmic (Golgi) vesicles. The lamprey's azurophil granulocytes seem to be homologous with those of fishes. However, the granulocytes of fishes, studied thus far, show granules with only one type of inclusion, whereas in lamprey the granulocyte inclusions are variable in size and shape. Thus, lamprey granulocytes are, in this respect, reminiscent of similar cells of higher vertebrates. The PAS and alkaline phosphatase reactions, common markers of vertebrate neutrophil leucocytes, are very weak in the haematopoietic tissue granulocytes of the lamprey, and intense in the blood cells of the same animal. Lamprey granulocytes, similarly to the granulocytes of Chondrostei and Elasmobranchiata, do not stain with peroxidase, naphthol-AS-D-chloroacetate esterase and sudan black B. The haematopoietic tissue contains a relatively high number of degenerated granulocytes.

Structure of the toad epidermis during the moulting cycle. II. Electron microscopic observations on Bufo bufo (L.).

Changes in the ultrastructure of the toad epidermis during the moulting cycle are described on the basis of 17 skin preparations fixed in consecutive phases of the cycle. Our previous light microscopical findings that morphological changes are mainly restricted to a short period prior to and after shedding are confirmed. Differentiation of zonulae occludentes in the new replacement layer after shedding is described and discussed in relation to the changes in ion permeability after the moult. Changes in appearance and distribution of filaments and of two different types of granules during the moulting cycle are described and discussed in relation to current views on amphibian keratinization; it is concluded that the initial phase of keratinization in the toad is very rapid and with a high degree of synchrony, whereas the laying-down of interfibrillar, central dense matrix in the new stratum corneum takes up to 24 hours and is less synchronous. The separation of the old stratum corneum from the replacement layer is gradual; it may be accomplished by rupture of "pillars" bearing the desmosomal complexes between stratum corneum and the replacement layer, or by breaking within the desmosomes themselves. Observed changes in granular content of the replacement layer are considered of no importance for this process, since the time sequence of discharge into the subcorneal space is not correlated with the initiation of separation. Other possible mechanisms of separation are discussed.