MINSTED nanoscopy enters the Ångström localization range.

Super-resolution techniques have achieved localization precisions in the nanometer regime. Here we report all-optical, room temperature localization of fluorophores with precision in the Ångström range. We built on the concept of MINSTED nanoscopy where precision is increased by encircling the fluorophore with the low-intensity central region of a stimulated emission depletion (STED) donut beam while constantly increasing the absolute donut power. By blue-shifting the STED beam and separating fluorophores by on/off switching, individual fluorophores bound to a DNA strand are localized with σ = 4.7 Å, corresponding to a fraction of the fluorophore size, with only 2,000 detected photons. MINSTED fluorescence nanoscopy with single-digit nanometer resolution is exemplified by imaging nuclear pore complexes and the distribution of nuclear lamin in mammalian cells labeled by transient DNA hybridization. Because our experiments yield a localization precision σ = 2.3 Å, estimated for 10,000 detected photons, we anticipate that MINSTED will open up new areas of application in the study of macromolecular complexes in cells.

Calibration of Deformable Mirrors for Open-Loop Control.

Deformable mirrors enable the control of wave fronts for the compensation of aberrations in optical systems and/or for beam scanning. Manufacturers of deformable mirrors typically provide calibration data that encode for the fabrication tolerances among the actuators and mirror segments to support open-loop control with high wave front fidelity and accuracy. We report a calibration method that enables users of the deformable mirrors to measure the response of the mirror itself to validate and improve the calibration data. For this purpose, an imaging off-axis Michelson interferometer was built that allowed measuring the mirror topography with high accuracy and sufficient spatial resolution. By calibrating each actuator over its entire range, the open-loop performance for our deformable mirror was improved.

Colocalization of different neurotransmitter transporters on synaptic vesicles is sparse except for VGLUT1 and ZnT3.

Vesicular transporters (VTs) define the type of neurotransmitter that synaptic vesicles (SVs) store and release. While certain mammalian neurons release multiple transmitters, it is not clear whether the release occurs from the same or distinct vesicle pools at the synapse. Using quantitative single-vesicle imaging, we show that a vast majority of SVs in the rodent brain contain only one type of VT, indicating specificity for a single neurotransmitter. Interestingly, SVs containing dual transporters are highly diverse (27 types) but small in proportion (2% of all SVs), excluding the largest pool that carries VGLUT1 and ZnT3 (34%). Using VGLUT1-ZnT3 SVs, we demonstrate that the transporter colocalization influences the SV content and synaptic quantal size. Thus, the presence of diverse transporters on the same vesicle is bona fide, and depending on the VT types, this may act to regulate neurotransmitter type, content, and release in space and time.

Incorporation and Assembly of a Light-Emitting Enzymatic Reaction into Model Protein Condensates.

Eukaryotic cells partition enzymes and other cellular components into distinct subcellular compartments to generate specialized biochemical niches. A subclass of these compartments form in the absence of lipid membranes, via liquid-liquid phase separation of proteins to form biomolecular condensates or "membraneless organelles" such as nucleoli, stress granules, and P-bodies. Because of their propensity to form compartments from simple starting materials, membraneless organelles are an attractive target for engineering new functionalities in both living cells and protocells. In this work, we demonstrate incorporation of a novel enzymatic activity in protein coacervates with the light-generating enzyme, NanoLuc, to produce bioluminescence. Using condensates comprised of the disordered RGG domain of Caenorhabditis elegans LAF-1, we functionalized condensates with enzymatic activity in vitro and show that enzyme localization to coacervates enhances assembly and activity of split enzymes. To build condensates that function as light-emitting reactors, we designed a NanoLuc enzyme flanked by RGG domains. The resulting condensates concentrated NanoLuc by 10-fold over bulk solution and displayed significantly increased reaction rates. We further show that condensate viscosity impacts light emission due to diffusion-limited behavior. Because our model condensates have low viscosities, we predict NanoLuc diffusion-limited behavior in most other condensates and thus propose the condensate-Nanoluc system as a potential strategy for high-throughput screening of condensate targeting drugs. By splitting the NanoLuc enzyme into its constituent components, we demonstrate that NanoLuc activity can be reconstituted via co-condensation. In addition, we demonstrate control of the spatial localization of the enzyme within condensates by targettng NanoLuc to the surface of in vitro condensates. Collectively, this work demonstrates that membraneless organelles can be endowed with localized enzymatic activity and that this activity can be spatially and temporally controlled via biochemical reconstitution and design of protein surfactants.

MINSTED fluorescence localization and nanoscopy.

We introduce MINSTED, a fluorophore localization and super-resolution microscopy concept based on stimulated emission depletion (STED) that provides spatial precision and resolution down to the molecular scale. In MINSTED, the intensity minimum of the STED doughnut, and hence the point of minimal STED, serves as a movable reference coordinate for fluorophore localization. As the STED rate, the background and the required number of fluorescence detections are low compared with most other STED microscopy and localization methods, MINSTED entails substantially less fluorophore bleaching. In our implementation, 200-1,000 detections per fluorophore provide a localization precision of 1-3nm in standard deviation, which in conjunction with independent single fluorophore switching translates to a -100-fold improvement in far-field microscopy resolution over the diffraction limit. The performance of MINSTED nanoscopy is demonstrated by imaging the distribution of Mic60 proteins in the mitochondrial inner membrane of human cells.

Photoactivatable Fluorophore for Stimulated Emission Depletion (STED) Microscopy and Bioconjugation Technique for Hydrophobic Labels.

The use of photoactivatable dyes in STED microscopy has so far been limited by two-photon activation through the STED beam and by the fact that photoactivatable dyes are poorly solvable in water. Herein, we report ONB-2SiR, a fluorophore that can be both photoactivated in the UV and specifically de-excited by STED at 775 nm. Likewise, we introduce a conjugation and purification protocol to effectively label primary and secondary antibodies with moderately water-soluble dyes. Greatly reducing dye aggregation, our technique provides a defined and tunable degree of labeling, and improves the imaging performance of dye conjugates in general.

An extended quantitative model for super-resolution optical fluctuation imaging (SOFI).

Super-resolution optical fluctuation imaging (SOFI) provides super-resolution (SR) fluorescence imaging by analyzing fluctuations in the fluorophore emission. The technique has been used both to acquire quantitative SR images and to provide SR biosensing by monitoring changes in fluorophore blinking dynamics. Proper analysis of such data relies on a fully quantitative model of the imaging. However, previous SOFI imaging models made several assumptions that can not be realized in practice. In this work we address these limitations by developing and verifying a fully quantitative model that better approximates real-world imaging conditions. Our model shows that (i) SOFI images are free of bias, or can be made so, if the signal is stationary and fluorophores blink independently, (ii) allows a fully quantitative description of the link between SOFI imaging and probe dynamics, and (iii) paves the way for more advanced SOFI image reconstruction by offering a computationally fast way to calculate SOFI images for arbitrary probe, sample and instrumental properties.

Achromatic light patterning and improved image reconstruction for parallelized RESOLFT nanoscopy.

Fluorescence microscopy is rapidly turning into nanoscopy. Among the various nanoscopy methods, the STED/RESOLFT super-resolution family has recently been expanded to image even large fields of view within a few seconds. This advance relies on using light patterns featuring substantial arrays of intensity minima for discerning features by switching their fluorophores between 'on' and 'off' states of fluorescence. Here we show that splitting the light with a grating and recombining it in the focal plane of the objective lens renders arrays of minima with wavelength-independent periodicity. This colour-independent creation of periodic patterns facilitates coaligned on- and off-switching and readout with combinations chosen from a range of wavelengths. Applying up to three such periodic patterns on the switchable fluorescent proteins Dreiklang and rsCherryRev1.4, we demonstrate highly parallelized, multicolour RESOLFT nanoscopy in living cells for ~100 × 100 µm2 fields of view. Individual keratin filaments were rendered at a FWHM of ~60-80 nm, with effective resolution for the filaments of ~80-100 nm. We discuss the impact of novel image reconstruction algorithms featuring background elimination by spatial bandpass filtering, as well as strategies that incorporate complete image formation models.

Complementarity of PALM and SOFI for super-resolution live-cell imaging of focal adhesions.

Live-cell imaging of focal adhesions requires a sufficiently high temporal resolution, which remains a challenge for super-resolution microscopy. Here we address this important issue by combining photoactivated localization microscopy (PALM) with super-resolution optical fluctuation imaging (SOFI). Using simulations and fixed-cell focal adhesion images, we investigate the complementarity between PALM and SOFI in terms of spatial and temporal resolution. This PALM-SOFI framework is used to image focal adhesions in living cells, while obtaining a temporal resolution below 10 s. We visualize the dynamics of focal adhesions, and reveal local mean velocities around 190 nm min-1. The complementarity of PALM and SOFI is assessed in detail with a methodology that integrates a resolution and signal-to-noise metric. This PALM and SOFI concept provides an enlarged quantitative imaging framework, allowing unprecedented functional exploration of focal adhesions through the estimation of molecular parameters such as fluorophore densities and photoactivation or photoswitching kinetics.

Carboxylated Photoswitchable Diarylethenes for Biolabeling and Super-Resolution RESOLFT Microscopy.

Reversibly photoswitchable 1,2-bis(2-ethyl-6-phenyl-1-benzothiophene-1,1-dioxide-3-yl)perfluorocyclopentenes (EBT) having fluorescent "closed" forms were decorated with four or eight carboxylic groups and attached to antibodies. Low aggregation, efficient photoswitching in aqueous buffers, specific staining of cellular structures, and good photophysical properties were demonstrated. Alternating light pulses of UV and blue light induce numerous reversible photochemical transformations between two stables states with distinct structures. Using relatively low light intensities, EBTs were applied in biology-related super-resolution microscopy based on the reversible saturable (switchable) optical linear fluorescence transitions (RESOLFT) and demonstrated optical resolution of 75 nm.

SOFI Simulation Tool: A Software Package for Simulating and Testing Super-Resolution Optical Fluctuation Imaging.

Super-resolution optical fluctuation imaging (SOFI) allows one to perform sub-diffraction fluorescence microscopy of living cells. By analyzing the acquired image sequence with an advanced correlation method, i.e. a high-order cross-cumulant analysis, super-resolution in all three spatial dimensions can be achieved. Here we introduce a software tool for a simple qualitative comparison of SOFI images under simulated conditions considering parameters of the microscope setup and essential properties of the biological sample. This tool incorporates SOFI and STORM algorithms, displays and describes the SOFI image processing steps in a tutorial-like fashion. Fast testing of various parameters simplifies the parameter optimization prior to experimental work. The performance of the simulation tool is demonstrated by comparing simulated results with experimentally acquired data.

Comment on "Extended-resolution structured illumination imaging of endocytic and cytoskeletal dynamics".

Li et al (Research Articles, 28 August 2015, aab3500) purport to present solutions to long-standing challenges in live-cell microscopy, reporting relatively fast acquisition times in conjunction with improved image resolution. We question the methods' reliability to visualize specimen features at sub-100-nanometer scales, because the mandatory mathematical processing of the recorded data leads to artifacts that are either difficult or impossible to disentangle from real features. We are also concerned about the chosen approach of subjectively comparing images from different super-resolution methods, as opposed to using quantitative measures.

Model-free uncertainty estimation in stochastical optical fluctuation imaging (SOFI) leads to a doubled temporal resolution.

Stochastic optical fluctuation imaging (SOFI) is a super-resolution fluorescence imaging technique that makes use of stochastic fluctuations in the emission of the fluorophores. During a SOFI measurement multiple fluorescence images are acquired from the sample, followed by the calculation of the spatiotemporal cumulants of the intensities observed at each position. Compared to other techniques, SOFI works well under conditions of low signal-to-noise, high background, or high emitter densities. However, it can be difficult to unambiguously determine the reliability of images produced by any superresolution imaging technique. In this work we present a strategy that enables the estimation of the variance or uncertainty associated with each pixel in the SOFI image. In addition to estimating the image quality or reliability, we show that this can be used to optimize the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of SOFI images by including multiple pixel combinations in the cumulant calculation. We present an algorithm to perform this optimization, which automatically takes all relevant instrumental, sample, and probe parameters into account. Depending on the optical magnification of the system, this strategy can be used to improve the SNR of a SOFI image by 40% to 90%. This gain in information is entirely free, in the sense that it does not require additional efforts or complications. Alternatively our approach can be applied to reduce the number of fluorescence images to meet a particular quality level by about 30% to 50%, strongly improving the temporal resolution of SOFI imaging.

Diffraction-unlimited imaging: from pretty pictures to hard numbers.

Diffraction-unlimited fluorescence imaging allows the visualization of intact, strongly heterogeneous systems at unprecedented levels of detail. Beyond the acquisition of detailed pictures, increasing efforts are now being focused on deriving quantitative insights from these techniques. In this work, we review the recent developments on sub-diffraction quantization that have arisen for the various techniques currently in use. We pay particular attention to the information that can be obtained but also the practical problems that can be faced, and provide suggestions for solutions or workarounds. We also show that these quantitative metrics not only provide a way to turn raw data into hard statistics but also help to understand the features and pitfalls associated with sub-diffraction imaging. Ultimately, these developments will lead to a highly standardized and easily applicable toolbox of techniques, which will find widespread application in the scientific community.

Live-cell multiplane three-dimensional super-resolution optical fluctuation imaging.

Super-resolution optical fluctuation imaging (SOFI) provides an elegant way of overcoming the diffraction limit in all three spatial dimensions by computing higher-order cumulants of image sequences of blinking fluorophores acquired with a classical widefield microscope. Previously, three-dimensional (3D) SOFI has been demonstrated by sequential imaging of multiple depth positions. Here we introduce a multiplexed imaging scheme for the simultaneous acquisition of multiple focal planes. Using 3D cross-cumulants, we show that the depth sampling can be increased. The simultaneous acquisition of multiple focal planes significantly reduces the acquisition time and thus the photobleaching. We demonstrate multiplane 3D SOFI by imaging fluorescently labelled cells over an imaged volume of up to 65 × 65 × 3.5 µm(3) without depth scanning. In particular, we image the 3D network of mitochondria in fixed C2C12 cells immunostained with Alexa 647 fluorophores and the 3D vimentin structure in living Hela cells expressing the fluorescent protein Dreiklang.

Visible light optical coherence correlation spectroscopy.

Optical coherence correlation spectroscopy (OCCS) allows studying kinetic processes at the single particle level using the backscattered light of nanoparticles. We extend the possibilities of this technique by increasing its signal-to-noise ratio by a factor of more than 25 and by generalizing the method to solutions containing multiple nanoparticle species. We applied these improvements by measuring protein adsorption and formation of a protein monolayer on superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles under physiological conditions.

High-resolution tracking of single-molecule diffusion in membranes by confocalized and spatially differentiated fluorescence photon stream recording.

The performance of a method is assessed which allows for the spatiotemporal tracking of single dye-labeled molecules during two-dimensional (2D) diffusional transits through the focal area of a modified confocal microscope. In addition to facilitating the observation of molecular diffusion paths at the shot-noise limit of bright organic emitters with spatial and temporal precisions of ∼10-20 nm and <0.5 ms, respectively, the direct access to the complete stream of detected photons is beneficial for characterizing nanoscale details such as transient pausing (binding). We discuss technical aspects of this approach, along with results from its application to measuring lipid membrane dynamics in live mammalian cells. Presented topics include a discussion of the advantages of the single-photon collection mode and instrument as well as computational considerations for the localization process. A proof-of-principle experiment shows that optical nanoscopy by stochastic single-molecule switching and position readout could be implementable in parallel with such fast molecular tracking. This would allow direct access to contextual imaging data of local cytoskeletal structural elements or localized longer-lived protein assemblies.

Optical coherence correlation spectroscopy (OCCS).

We present a new method called optical coherence correlation spectroscopy (OCCS) using nanoparticles as reporters of kinetic processes at the single particle level. OCCS is a spectral interferometry based method, thus giving simultaneous access to several sampling volumes along the optical axis. Based on an auto-correlation analysis, we extract the diffusion coefficients and concentrations of nanoparticles over a large concentration range. The cross-correlation analysis between adjacent sampling volumes allows to measure flow parameters. This shows the potential of OCCS for spatially resolved diffusion and flow measurements.

Zero-crossing approach to high-resolution reconstruction in frequency-domain optical-coherence tomography.

We address the problem of high-resolution reconstruction in frequency-domain optical-coherence tomography (FDOCT). The traditional method employed uses the inverse discrete Fourier transform, which is limited in resolution due to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. We propose a reconstruction technique based on zero-crossing (ZC) interval analysis. The motivation for our approach lies in the observation that, for a multilayered specimen, the backscattered signal may be expressed as a sum of sinusoids, and each sinusoid manifests as a peak in the FDOCT reconstruction. The successive ZC intervals of a sinusoid exhibit high consistency, with the intervals being inversely related to the frequency of the sinusoid. The statistics of the ZC intervals are used for detecting the frequencies present in the input signal. The noise robustness of the proposed technique is improved by using a cosine-modulated filter bank for separating the input into different frequency bands, and the ZC analysis is carried out on each band separately. The design of the filter bank requires the design of a prototype, which we accomplish using a Kaiser window approach. We show that the proposed method gives good results on synthesized and experimental data. The resolution is enhanced, and noise robustness is higher compared with the standard Fourier reconstruction.

Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy with a total internal reflection fluorescence STED microscope (TIRF-STED-FCS).

We characterize a novel fluorescence microscope which combines the high spatial discrimination of a total internal reflection epi-fluorescence (epi-TIRF) microscope with that of stimulated emission depletion (STED) nanoscopy. This combination of high axial confinement and dynamic-active lateral spatial discrimination of the detected fluorescence emission promises imaging and spectroscopy of the structure and function of cell membranes at the macro-molecular scale. Following a full theoretical description of the sampling volume and the recording of images of fluorescent beads, we exemplify the performance and limitations of the TIRF-STED nanoscope with particular attention to the polarization state of the laser excitation light. We demonstrate fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) with the TIRF-STED nanoscope by observing the diffusion of dye molecules in aqueous solutions and of fluorescent lipid analogs in supported lipid bilayers in the presence of background signal. The nanoscope reduced the out-of-focus background signal. A lateral resolution down to 40-50 nm was attained which was ultimately limited by the low lateral signal-to-background ratio inherent to the confocal epi-TIRF scheme. Together with the estimated axial confinement of about 55 nm, our TIRF-STED nanoscope achieved an almost isotropic and less than 1 attoliter small all-optically induced measurement volume.