Dopamine and Serotonin Transporter Genes Regulation in Highly Sensitive Individuals during Stressful Conditions: A Focus on Genetics and Epigenetics.

Background: Coping with stress is essential for mental well-being and can be critical for highly sensitive individuals, characterized by a deeper perception and processing of stimuli. So far, the molecular bases characterizing high-sensitivity traits have not been completely investigated and gene × environment interactions might play a key role in making some people more susceptible than others. Methods: In this study, 104 young adult university students, subjects that might face overwhelming experiences more than others, were evaluated for the genetics and epigenetics of dopamine (DAT1) and serotonin (SERT) transporter genes, in addition to the expression of miR-132, miR-491, miR-16, and miR-135. Results: We found an increase in DNA methylation at one specific CpG site at DAT1 5'UTR in highly sensitive students reporting high levels of perceived stress when compared to those less sensitive and/or less stressed. Moreover, considering DAT1 VNTR at 3'UTR, we observed that this effect was even more pronounced in university students having the 9/9 genotype when compared to those with the 9/10 genotype. These data are corroborated by the higher levels of miR-491, targeting DAT1, in highly sensitive subjects with high levels of perceived stress. SERT gene DNA methylation at one specific CpG site was reported to instead be higher in subjects reporting lower perceived stress when compared to more stressed subjects. Consistently, miR-135 expression, regulating SERT, was lower in subjects with higher perceived stress. Conclusions: We here suggest that the correlation of DAT1 and SERT genetic and epigenetic data with the analysis of stress and sensitivity might be useful to suggest possible biomarkers to monitor mental health wellness in vulnerable subjects.

From inner to dyadic connection: the role of mindfulness in mother-infant interaction during the first year of life.

Introduction: Mother-infant attunement is fundamental to supporting infant socio-emotional development. Based on the assumption that we connect better with others if we are aware of and connected with our own experience, mindfulness could affect the maternal ability to attune to the infant. However, little is known about this topic in the first year of life. Study 1 aimed to investigate the role of maternal dispositional mindfulness and mindful parenting in mother-infant physiological and behavioral attunement at 3 months of age. Study 2 aimed to explore the effect of a mindfulness-based intervention not specific to parenting experience on mother-infant behavioral and physiological attunement and on maternal wellbeing at 9 months of age. Methods: In Study 1, mother-infant (n = 67) behavioral and physiological attunement (i.e., co-regulation and RSA) were collected simultaneously each 20 s during face-to-face interaction. Mothers completed questionnaires about their dispositional mindfulness and mindful parenting. In Study 2, mother-infant dyads were randomly divided into a control (n = 20) and an intervention group (n = 29). The intervention group attended a 5-week mindfulness-based intervention. At T1 and T2, the same procedure described in Study 1 was applied and mothers reported about their wellbeing. Results: Results showed that maternal mindfulness was associated with high physiological and behavioral attunement at 3 months and with more positive maternal behaviors and less stress at 9 months. Analysis evidenced a slight improvement in the intervention group in maternal dispositional mindfulness and a reduction in parenting stress at T2. Discussion: Findings from both studies suggested that maternal mindfulness could represent a protective factor that could support mothers in fostering better dyadic interactions with their infants. The implementation of mindfulness-based interventions for mothers could have preventive and clinical implications.

Early, typical, and late talkers: an exploratory study on predictors of language development in the first two years of life.

Background: The consensus in scientific literature is that each child undergoes a unique linguistic development path, albeit with shared developmental stages. Some children excel or lag behind their peers in language skills. Consequently, a key challenge in language acquisition research is pinpointing factors influencing individual differences in language development. Methods: We observed children longitudinally from 3 to 24 months of life to explore early predictors of vocabulary size. Based on the productive vocabulary size of children at 24 months, 30 children met our sample selection criteria: 10 late talkers and 10 early talkers, and we compared them with 10 typical talkers. We evaluated interactive behaviors at 3, 6, 9 and 12 months, considering vocal production, gaze at mother's face, and gestural production during mother-child interactions, and we considered mothers' report of children's actions and gestures and receptive-vocabulary size at 15 and 18 months. Results: Results indicated early precursors of language outcome at 24 months identifiable as early as 3 months in vocal productions, 6 months for gaze at mother's face and 12 months for gestural productions. Conclusions: Our research highlights both theoretical and practical implications. Theoretically, identifying the early indicators of belonging to the group of late or early talkers underscores the significant role of this developmental period for future studies. On a practical note, our findings emphasize the crucial need for early investigations to identify predictors of vocabulary development before the typical age at which lexical delay is identified.

Moderate cardiac vagal tone predicts more cooperation in highly sensitive individuals.

Cooperation, as a mutual collaboration, is a defining feature of human social life. Individual characteristics can influence cooperation. Recent studies have shown a quadratic relationship between cardiac vagal tone (CVT), an index of self-regulation, and prosocial behaviors. Individual differences in cooperation might also vary as a function of people's environmental sensitivity (ES), i.e., may be influenced by individual differences in the perception and processing of inner and external stimuli. We tested the direct and interactive effect of CVT and ES on cooperative behaviors in two independent samples. We measured heart rate and engagement in cooperative acts in 80 young adults (M = 23.61; SD = 1.60) who were also asked to self-report on ES. We found an inverted-U relationship between CVT and cooperative behaviors. ES, on the other hand, did not predict differences in cooperative behaviors but moderated the relationships between CVT and cooperation, although the magnitude of this result was small. Specifically, only among individuals with higher ES cooperative behaviors change as a function of CVT. Highly sensitive individuals with lower or higher CVT, were less cooperative than low sensitive ones. Subsequently, we replicated the same study design in a second sample of 88 undergraduate students (M = 23.69; SD = 4.91). Once again, we found evidence supporting the presence of an inverted-U relationship between CVT and cooperative behaviors, and we also found that ES moderated the relationships between the quadratic CVT term and cooperation.

The role of environmental sensitivity in the experience and processing of emotions: implications for well-being.

Several theories suggest that people differ significantly in their environmental sensitivity, defined as the capacity to perceive and process information about the environment. More sensitive people, who make up between 25% and 30% of the population, are not only more negatively affected by adverse experiences but also benefit disproportionately from positive ones, in line with differential susceptibility theory. Heightened emotional reactivity has been identified as one of the key markers of sensitivity. However, the current understanding of the relationship between sensitivity and the experience and processing of emotions remains limited. In the current paper we propose a new conceptual framework for the multiple ways in which environmental sensitivity may impact on different aspects of the experience and processing of emotions. This includes heightened perception of emotions, increased emotional reactivity, as well as the important role of emotion regulation for the well-being of highly sensitive people. In addition, we also consider rearing experiences in shaping sensitivity and emotion regulation. The reviewed empirical studies largely support the conceptual model but more research is needed to explore the dynamics between sensitivity and emotions further. Finally, we discuss several implications for well-being before making a case for the inclusion of individual differences in environmental sensitivity in affective science. This article is part of the theme issue 'Sensing and feeling: an integrative approach to sensory processing and emotional experience'.

Longitudinal Profiles of Cultural Identity Processes and Associations with Psychosocial Outcomes Among Adolescents Participating in the Identity Project in Italy.

Cultural identity formation is a complex developmental task that influences adolescents' adjustment. However, less is known about individual variations in trajectories of cultural identity processes and how they relate to youth psychosocial outcomes. Using a person-centered approach, this study investigated patterns of change over a year in cultural identity exploration and resolution, respectively, among ethnically diverse adolescents in Italy. The sample included 173 high school students (Mage = 15 yrs, SD = 0.62, range = 14-17; 58.4% female; 26% immigrant background) who had participated in the Identity Project, a school-based intervention targeting ethnic-racial identity development. Longitudinal latent profile analysis revealed only one profile of change for exploration, whereas four unique profiles for resolution emerged ("stable low," "stable average," "increase low-to-average," "increase high-to-higher"). Overall, youth in the resolution-increase profiles reported the best outcomes. The findings highlight the heterogeneity of adolescents' resolution trajectories and the benefits of an increased sense of clarity concerning one's cultural identity for positive psychosocial functioning.

A Bayesian approach for exploring person × environment interaction within the environmental sensitivity meta-framework.

BACKGROUND: For investigating the individual-environment interplay and individual differences in response to environmental exposures as captured by models of environmental sensitivity including Diathesis-stress, Differential Susceptibility, and Vantage Sensitivity, over the last few years, a series of statistical guidelines have been proposed. However, available solutions suffer of computational problems especially relevant when sample size is not sufficiently large, a common condition in observational and clinical studies. METHOD: In the current contribution, we propose a Bayesian solution for estimating interaction parameters via Monte Carlo Markov Chains (MCMC), adapting Widaman et al. (Psychological Methods, 17, 2012, 615) Nonlinear Least Squares (NLS) approach. RESULTS: Findings from an applied exemplification and a simulation study showed that with relatively big samples both MCMC and NLS estimates converged on the same results. Conversely, MCMC clearly outperformed NLS, resolving estimation problems and providing more accurate estimates, particularly with small samples and greater residual variance. CONCLUSIONS: As the body of research exploring the interplay between individual and environmental variables grows, enabling predictions regarding the form of interaction and the extent of effects, the Bayesian approach could emerge as a feasible and readily applicable solution to numerous computational challenges inherent in existing frequentist methods. This approach holds promise for enhancing the trustworthiness of research outcomes, thereby impacting clinical and applied understanding.

The role of environmental sensitivity in the mental health of Syrian refugee children: a multi-level analysis.

Individuals with high environmental sensitivity have nervous systems that are disproportionately receptive to both the protective and imperilling aspects of the environment, suggesting their mental health is strongly context-dependent. However, there have been few consolidated attempts to examine putative markers of sensitivity, across different levels of analysis, within a single cohort of individuals with high-priority mental health needs. Here, we examine psychological (self-report), physiological (hair hormones) and genetic (polygenic scores) markers of sensitivity in a large cohort of 1591 Syrian refugee children across two waves of data. Child-caregiver dyads were recruited from informal tented settlements in Lebanon, and completed a battery of psychological instruments at baseline and follow-up (12 months apart). Univariate and multivariate Bayesian linear mixed models were used to examine a) the interrelationships between markers of sensitivity and b) the ability of sensitivity markers to predict anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and externalising behaviour. Self-reported sensitivity (using the Highly Sensitive Child Scale) significantly predicted a higher burden of all forms of mental illness across both waves, however, there were no significant cross-lagged pathways. Physiological and genetic markers were not stably predictive of self-reported sensitivity, and failed to similarly predict mental health outcomes. The measurement of environmental sensitivity may have significant implications for identifying and treating mental illness, especially amongst vulnerable populations, but clinical utility is currently limited to self-report assessment.

Maternal dispositional mindfulness and mother-child relationship: The mediating role of emotional control during parenting.

BACKGROUND: The literature supports the role of parental dispositional mindfulness on parent-child relationship quality. However, little is known about the connection between these two aspects. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate whether emotion regulation during parenting, that is, the ability to control negative emotions, mediated the association between parental dispositional mindfulness and parent-child relationship quality. The study also explored the moderation role of child age on the association between parental dispositional mindfulness and parent's ability to control negative emotions during parenting. METHODS: Participants were 635 mothers of children aged between 12 months and 5 years. Mothers completed self-report questionnaires to measure maternal dispositional mindfulness, mother-child relationship quality and maternal control of negative emotions during parenting. RESULTS: Results showed that maternal ability to control negative emotions during parenting partially mediated the association between maternal dispositional mindfulness and mother-child relationship quality. Moreover, the moderation role of child age indicated that the association between maternal dispositional mindfulness and maternal ability to control negative emotions during parenting was stronger for older children's mothers. CONCLUSION: Dispositional mindfulness has a protective role for the quality of parenting and the mother-child relationship. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

The contribution of Sensory Processing Sensitivity and internalized attachment representations on emotion regulation competencies in school-age children.

Introduction: As captured by the individual trait of Sensory Processing Sensitivity (SPS), highly sensitive children perceive, process, and responds more strongly to stimuli. This increased sensitivity may make more demanding the process of regulating and managing emotions. Yet, developmental psychology literature also showed that other variables, as those related to the rearing environment, are likely to contribute to the process of regulating emotions. With the current contribution, we aim to bridge two lines of research, that of attachment studies and that of SPS, by investigating the additive and interactive contribution of SPS and internal working models of attachment representations on emotion regulation competencies in school-aged children. Method: Participants were N = 118 Italian children (mean age: 6.5, SD = 0.58 years, and 51.8% female) with their mothers. Children's positive attachment representations were rated observationally through the Manchester Child Attachment Story Task procedure during an individual session at school. Mothers reported on children SPS trait and emotion regulation competencies completing the Highly Sensitive Child Scale-parent report and the Emotion Regulation Checklist. We performed and compared a series of main and interaction effect models. Results: SPS was not directly associated with emotion regulation but it was significantly associated with positive attachment representations in predicting emotion regulation. Highly sensitive children showed poorer emotion regulation when the internalized representations were low in maternal warmth and responsiveness. When driven by sensitive and empathic attachment representation, highly sensitive children showed better emotion regulation than less-sensitive peers, suggesting a for better and for worse effect. Discussion: Highly sensitive children are not only more vulnerable to adversities but also show better emotion regulation competencies when supported by positive internal working models of attachment relationships. Overall, findings shed light on the link between SPS and attachment and suggest that working for promoting secure attachment relationships in parent-child dyads may promote better emotion regulation competences, particularly in highly sensitive children.

Family Functioning, Identity Commitments, and School Value among Ethnic Minority and Ethnic Majority Adolescents.

Ethnic minority youth show worse school adjustment than their ethnic majority peers. Yet, it remains unclear whether this gap can be explained by differences in family functioning and consequent identity commitments. This study examined (1) whether family functioning relates to identity commitments over time and (2) whether identity commitments impact later school value (3) among minority and majority adolescents. Minority (N = 205, Mage = 16.25 years, 31.1% girls) and majority adolescents (N = 480, Mage = 15.73 years, 47.9% girls) participated in this preregistered three-wave longitudinal study (T1: March-April 2012; T2: October 2012; T3: March-April 2013). Dynamic Panel Models revealed that most within-person cross-lagged associations were not significant in the total sample. Yet, multigroup analyses revealed differences between groups: Stronger identity commitments related to lower school value among minority adolescents, but were unrelated to school value among majority adolescents over time. Additionally, higher school value increased identity commitments among minority youth, yet it decreased identity commitments among majority youth over time. The findings highlight the differential interplay between identity commitments and school adjustment for minority and majority adolescents, with important implications for their future life chances.

The Role of Psychological Parental Control and Internalizing Problems in the Etiology of Vigorexia and Orthorexia in Adolescence.

The present study aims to explore the forms of psychological parental control that are interconnected with dysfunctional emotional states (i.e., anxiety and depression), and how these internalizing problems may manifest as distorted behaviors (i.e., vigorexic and orthorexic behaviors) during adolescence. Participants included 403 Italian adolescent athletes (231 boys and 172 girls) aged 14 to 18 years. The participants completed self-report questionnaires designed to assess psychological parental control oriented towards dependence and achievement, anxiety and depression, and vigorexia and orthorexia. The results highlight how both forms of psychological parental control predict anxiety and depression. Furthermore, anxiety was found to be linked to both vigorexic and orthorexic behaviors, while depression is connected only to vigorexia. This study delves into the intricacies of parental influence on adolescents, revealing that both dependency-oriented and success-oriented psychological parental control have notable implications for the mental well-being of adolescents. The findings underscore the interconnectedness of these factors, demonstrating that anxiety can set off a chain reaction, leading to engagement in vigorexic and orthorexic behaviors. On the other hand, depression appears to be uniquely associated with vigorexia. These insights contribute to our understanding of the complex dynamics between parental control and adolescent mental health. The implications of this research extend to both theoretical frameworks and practical interventions, emphasizing the need for a nuanced approach to supporting adolescents in navigating these challenges.

Families Facing Pandemic Modifications of Everyday Life: A Mixed Study on Mothers' and Children's Emotional Reactions and Regulation Strategies.

The COVID-19 pandemic caused many enduring changes in the everyday life of families, with negative effects on parents' and children's wellbeing. However, there is a lack of studies in the literature exploring the emotional reactions and coping strategies of both mothers and children of different ages. Furthermore, most studies used only self-reports. This study aimed to identify the emotions and coping strategies of children, adolescents and their mothers and to verify the association between maternal and child wellbeing. A mixed-method design using interviews and questionnaires was applied to collect information on wellbeing (emotional reactions, behavioral/emotional problems) and coping strategies of both mothers (n = 65; M age = 42.17; SD = 4.40; M age = 41.63; SD = 4.48), and their children (n = 35, 8-10 year; n = 30, 11-13 year) during the second wave of the pandemic (December 2020). No differences between the groups emerged concerning the emotional reactions reported. In contrast, mothers and children of different ages reported different self-regulation and other-regulation strategies. Moreover, maternal strategies had different effects on children's wellbeing. The integration of qualitative and quantitative results was informative to understand how families adapted to the radical changes of everyday life related to the pandemic. The implications for developing interventions in such similar stressful situations to promote family wellbeing are discussed.

Parental relationships, emotion regulation and orthorexia: A study on adolescent athletes.

Background: This study seeks to further our understanding of the factors associated with adolescent athletes and disordered eating, by expanding current research into a less-explored eating disorder known as orthorexia. Aim: The aim of the study is to explore the impact of parents' relationships and emotional regulation on the orthorexia nervosa (ON) tendencies of adolescent athletes. Methods: The participants were 303 adolescents, ranging from 15 to 17 years old, of which 139 participated in competitive sport, and 164 did not. Three self-report questionnaires were administered to assess orthorexia (ORTO-15), relationship with parents (Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment) and emotion regulation (Emotion Regulation Questionnaire). Results: The results highlight that those who practice sports report higher levels of orthorexia, inadequate relationships with parents, as well as greater emotional regulation difficulties. Furthermore, inadequate parents' relationship predicts orthorexia while expressive emotional regulation mediates this relationship. Conclusion: These findings highlight how ON tendencies in athletes are linked to poor management of emotions combined with inadequate relationships with parents in terms of communication and affection. Implications for practice and support for athletes are discussed.

Individual Differences in Adolescents' Civic Engagement: The Role of Civic Discussions with Parents and Environmental Sensitivity.

The main goal of the current study was to examine the direct and moderating effects of civic discussions with parents and environmental sensitivity using both the total score and its specific dimensions (i.e., Aesthetic Sensitivity, AES; Ease of Excitation, EOE; Low Sensitivity Threshold, LST) on youth civic engagement (attitudes and behaviours). The empirical analysis relied on a questionnaire-based survey conducted on a sample of 438 adolescents (30% males), aged between 14 and 18 years (M = 16.50, SD = 1.36). We used a structural equation model (SEM) with latent variables and the latent moderated structural equation (LMS) method to test our hypotheses. Our results showed that civic discussions with parents were positively and significantly associated with general environmental sensitivity and with AES and predicted both civic attitudes and civic behaviours; EOE was negatively and significantly related to civic behaviours; AES was positively and significantly related to civic attitudes; and LST was not significantly related to either civic attitudes or behaviours. Contrary to our expectations, environmental sensitivity did not moderate the relationship between civic discussions with parents and civic engagement. Our study further highlights the relevance that parents have in shaping their children's civic engagement and makes a novel contribution regarding how differences in perceiving and processing environmental stimuli can affect beliefs and behaviours toward community issues among young individuals.

Sensitivity and Attachment in an Italian Sample of Hikikomori Adolescents and Young Adults.

Hikikomori is a severe form of social withdrawal increasing among the young Italian population. Hikikomori has been connected to psychological problems and high environmental sensitivity. Nevertheless, only a few studies have been carried out in the Italian context, and they did not analyze several aspects strictly related to the hikikomori phenomenon, such as the role of attachment and sensitivity. We aimed to investigate the relationship between attachment, sensitivity, and psychological problems in a sample of Italian hikikomori. Our sample comprised 72 Italian adolescents and young adults (49 males and 23 females), meanly aged 22.5 years, recruited through online forums and clinical centers for the hikikomori phenomenon. Our participants fulfilled the Highly Sensitive Person Scale (HSPS), the Attachment Style Questionnaire (ASQ), and the Hopkins Symptom Checklist (SCL-90-R). The results showed high psychological issues (i.e., depression and anxiety), environmental sensitivity, and insecure attachment orientations. Moreover, we discovered a significant relationship between attachment dimensions, environmental sensitivity, and psychopathology. Our study sheds light on a novel research path and could help both the researchers and the clinicians who work with people suffering from social withdrawal.

Emotion Regulation in Toddlerhood: Regulatory Strategies in Anger and Fear Eliciting Contexts at 24 and 30 Months.

The study investigated the emergence of toddlers' regulatory strategies in aversive contexts. Forty-two toddlers were observed at 24 and 30 months of age using two paradigms designed to elicit fear and anger. We examined toddlers' use of regulatory strategies at these two stages of life regarding the frequency of self-versus other-oriented strategies and of reactive versus more controlled behaviors. Results showed that the type and level of control of strategies used in toddlerhood in managing negative emotions depend on emotion (e.g., fear versus anger) and age. Toddlers used self-oriented strategies to regulate fear and other-oriented strategies to regulate anger. To manage fear, when toddlers got older, they increased the use of reactive strategies (i.e., releasing tension) and decreased the use of more purposeful strategies (i.e., dealing with the aversive stimulus). In contrast, to regulate anger, toddlers utilized an intermediate level of control (i.e., drawing the mother's attention to themselves) and increased the use of this strategy with age. In addition, toddlers were able to select appropriate strategies for different stressors, and they increased with age the ability to adapt the strategies to the environmental conditions. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Efficacy of a cultural adaptation of the Identity Project intervention among adolescents attending multiethnic classrooms in Italy: A randomized controlled trial.

This registered report evaluated the efficacy of an Italian adaptation of the Identity Project, a school-based intervention promoting adolescents' cultural identity. Migration background and environmental sensitivity were explored as moderators. After adapting and piloting the intervention, a randomized controlled trial was conducted between October 2021 and January 2022 on 747 ethnically diverse adolescents (Mage = 15 years, 53% girls, 31% with migration background) attending 45 classrooms randomly assigned to the intervention or control condition. Bayesian analyses confirmed the efficacy of the Italian IP in enhancing exploration processes (Cohen's d = .18), whereas no cascading effect on resolution emerged. Youth with higher (vs. lower) levels of environmental sensitivity benefited more in terms of exploration. Implications for developmental theory and practice are discussed.

Sensory processing sensitivity in adolescents reporting chronic pain: an exploratory study.

Introduction: Sensory processing sensitivity (SPS) describes a genetically influenced trait characterized by greater depth of information processing, lower sensory threshold, and ease of overstimulation. It is hypothesized that SPS plays a crucial role in the context of chronic pain.Objectives: This exploratory study examined SPS as a correlate of pain intensity and pain-related disability in a sample of adolescents reporting chronic pain. Methods: Adolescents reporting chronic pain were contacted through social media and through specialized pain clinics. Participants completed online questionnaires on their levels of SPS, pain features, emotion regulation, and quality of life. A series of analysis of variances (ANOVAs) were calculated to detect differences between 3 SPS groups (ie, high, medium, and low sensitivity) regarding emotion regulation, quality of life, and pain features. Multiple linear regressions were conducted to predict pain intensity, pain-related disability, and quality of life. Results: In total, 103 participants completed the survey (68.9% female, Mage 17.9). Back pain was the most frequently reported pain location. Proportion of highly sensitive individuals was large (45.68%). The ANOVA revealed significant differences between sensitivity groups related to quality-of-life subscales, namely, for physical (F(2, 100) = 7.42, P < 0.001), emotional (F(2, 100) = 6.11, P < 0.001), and school functioning (F(2, 100) = 3.75, P = 0.03). High sensitivity was not predictive of pain but of health-related quality of life. Conclusions: Our results indicate that SPS is an important and prevalent characteristic to consider in the context of chronic pain in adolescents, specifically regarding the quality of life.

Alpha and theta brain activity in 9-month-old infants during a live referential gaze paradigm.

The ability to establish a connection between the direction of the other's gaze and the object that is observed has important implications in the development of social cognition and learning. In this study, we analyzed alpha and theta band oscillations in one group of 9-month-old infants by implementing a face-to-face live paradigm, which presented the infants with a triadic social interaction with a real human being. We compared neural activations in two experimental conditions: Congruent and Incongruent gaze shift following the appearance of an object. In the Incongruent object-gaze shift condition, we observed an increase of the theta power in comparison with the Congruent condition. We also found an enhancement of the alpha activity during the Congruent versus the Incongruent object-gaze condition. These findings confirm the involvement of the theta and alpha band activity in the detection of the gaze of others when it shifts toward a referential target. We consider that the theta band modulation could be associated with the processing of unexpected events. Furthermore, the increase of the alpha band activity during the Congruent object-gaze condition seems to be in agreement with prior findings on the mechanisms of internally controlled attention that emerge before the first year of life. The implementation of a live paradigm elicited a partially different oscillatory pattern in comparison with non-live standard paradigms, supporting the importance of an ecological set-up reproducing real-life conditions to study the development of social cognition.