The role of oral hygiene in head and neck cancer: results from International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology (INHANCE) consortium.

BACKGROUND: Poor oral hygiene has been proposed to contribute to head and neck cancer (HNC) risk, although causality and independency of some indicators are uncertain. This study investigates the relationship of five oral hygiene indicators with incident HNCs. METHODS: In a pooled analysis of 8925 HNC cases and 12 527 controls from 13 studies participating in the International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology Consortium, comparable data on good oral hygiene indicators were harmonized. These included: no denture wear, no gum disease (or bleeding), <5 missing teeth, tooth brushing at least daily, and visiting a dentist ≥once a year. Logistic regression was used to estimate the effects of each oral hygiene indicator and cumulative score on HNC risk, adjusting for tobacco smoking and alcohol consumption. RESULTS: Inverse associations with any HNC, in the hypothesized direction, were observed for <5 missing teeth [odds ratio (OR) = 0.78; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.74, 0.82], annual dentist visit (OR = 0.82; 95% CI 0.78, 0.87), daily tooth brushing (OR = 0.83, 95% CI 0.79, 0.88), and no gum disease (OR = 0.94; 95% CI 0.89, 0.99), and no association was observed for wearing dentures. These associations were relatively consistent across specific cancer sites, especially for tooth brushing and dentist visits. The population attributable fraction for ≤ 2 out of 5 good oral hygiene indicators was 8.9% (95% CI 3.3%, 14%) for oral cavity cancer. CONCLUSION: Good oral hygiene, as characterized by few missing teeth, annual dentist visits, and daily tooth brushing, may modestly reduce the risk of HNC.

Genome-wide analysis implicates microRNAs and their target genes in the development of bipolar disorder.

Bipolar disorder (BD) is a severe and highly heritable neuropsychiatric disorder with a lifetime prevalence of 1%. Molecular genetic studies have identified the first BD susceptibility genes. However, the disease pathways remain largely unknown. Accumulating evidence suggests that microRNAs, a class of small noncoding RNAs, contribute to basic mechanisms underlying brain development and plasticity, suggesting their possible involvement in the pathogenesis of several psychiatric disorders, including BD. In the present study, gene-based analyses were performed for all known autosomal microRNAs using the largest genome-wide association data set of BD to date (9747 patients and 14 278 controls). Associated and brain-expressed microRNAs were then investigated in target gene and pathway analyses. Functional analyses of miR-499 and miR-708 were performed in rat hippocampal neurons. Ninety-eight of the six hundred nine investigated microRNAs showed nominally significant P-values, suggesting that BD-associated microRNAs might be enriched within known microRNA loci. After correction for multiple testing, nine microRNAs showed a significant association with BD. The most promising were miR-499, miR-708 and miR-1908. Target gene and pathway analyses revealed 18 significant canonical pathways, including brain development and neuron projection. For miR-499, four Bonferroni-corrected significant target genes were identified, including the genome-wide risk gene for psychiatric disorder CACNB2. First results of functional analyses in rat hippocampal neurons neither revealed nor excluded a major contribution of miR-499 or miR-708 to dendritic spine morphogenesis. The present results suggest that research is warranted to elucidate the precise involvement of microRNAs and their downstream pathways in BD.

Obesity and survival among women with ovarian cancer: results from the Ovarian Cancer Association Consortium.

BACKGROUND: Observational studies have reported a modest association between obesity and risk of ovarian cancer; however, whether it is also associated with survival and whether this association varies for the different histologic subtypes are not clear. We undertook an international collaborative analysis to assess the association between body mass index (BMI), assessed shortly before diagnosis, progression-free survival (PFS), ovarian cancer-specific survival and overall survival (OS) among women with invasive ovarian cancer. METHODS: We used original data from 21 studies, which included 12 390 women with ovarian carcinoma. We combined study-specific adjusted hazard ratios (HRs) using random-effects models to estimate pooled HRs (pHR). We further explored associations by histologic subtype. RESULTS: Overall, 6715 (54%) deaths occurred during follow-up. A significant OS disadvantage was observed for women who were obese (BMI: 30-34.9, pHR: 1.10 (95% confidence intervals (CIs): 0.99-1.23); BMI: ⩾35, pHR: 1.12 (95% CI: 1.01-1.25)). Results were similar for PFS and ovarian cancer-specific survival. In analyses stratified by histologic subtype, associations were strongest for women with low-grade serous (pHR: 1.12 per 5 kg m(-2)) and endometrioid subtypes (pHR: 1.08 per 5 kg m(-2)), and more modest for the high-grade serous (pHR: 1.04 per 5 kg m(-2)) subtype, but only the association with high-grade serous cancers was significant. CONCLUSIONS: Higher BMI is associated with adverse survival among the majority of women with ovarian cancer.

Infertility and incident endometrial cancer risk: a pooled analysis from the epidemiology of endometrial cancer consortium (E2C2).

BACKGROUND: Nulliparity is an endometrial cancer risk factor, but whether or not this association is due to infertility is unclear. Although there are many underlying infertility causes, few studies have assessed risk relations by specific causes. METHODS: We conducted a pooled analysis of 8153 cases and 11 713 controls from 2 cohort and 12 case-control studies. All studies provided self-reported infertility and its causes, except for one study that relied on data from national registries. Logistic regression was used to estimate adjusted odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI). RESULTS: Nulliparous women had an elevated endometrial cancer risk compared with parous women, even after adjusting for infertility (OR=1.76; 95% CI: 1.59-1.94). Women who reported infertility had an increased risk compared with those without infertility concerns, even after adjusting for nulliparity (OR=1.22; 95% CI: 1.13-1.33). Among women who reported infertility, none of the individual infertility causes were substantially related to endometrial cancer. CONCLUSIONS: Based on mainly self-reported infertility data that used study-specific definitions of infertility, nulliparity and infertility appeared to independently contribute to endometrial cancer risk. Understanding residual endometrial cancer risk related to infertility, its causes and its treatments may benefit from large studies involving detailed data on various infertility parameters.

Common genetic variants in the 9p21 region and their associations with multiple tumours.

BACKGROUND: The chromosome 9p21.3 region has been implicated in the pathogenesis of multiple cancers. METHODS: We systematically examined up to 203 tagging SNPs of 22 genes on 9p21.3 (19.9-32.8 Mb) in eight case-control studies: thyroid cancer, endometrial cancer (EC), renal cell carcinoma, colorectal cancer (CRC), colorectal adenoma (CA), oesophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC), gastric cardia adenocarcinoma and osteosarcoma (OS). We used logistic regression to perform single SNP analyses for each study separately, adjusting for study-specific covariates. We combined SNP results across studies by fixed-effect meta-analyses and a newly developed subset-based statistical approach (ASSET). Gene-based P-values were obtained by the minP method using the Adaptive Rank Truncated Product program. We adjusted for multiple comparisons by Bonferroni correction. RESULTS: Rs3731239 in cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors 2A (CDKN2A) was significantly associated with ESCC (P=7 × 10(-6)). The CDKN2A-ESCC association was further supported by gene-based analyses (Pgene=0.0001). In the meta-analyses by ASSET, four SNPs (rs3731239 in CDKN2A, rs615552 and rs573687 in CDKN2B and rs564398 in CDKN2BAS) showed significant associations with ESCC and EC (P<2.46 × 10(-4)). One SNP in MTAP (methylthioadenosine phosphorylase) (rs7023329) that was previously associated with melanoma and nevi in multiple genome-wide association studies was associated with CRC, CA and OS by ASSET (P=0.007). CONCLUSION: Our data indicate that genetic variants in CDKN2A, and possibly nearby genes, may be associated with ESCC and several other tumours, further highlighting the importance of 9p21.3 genetic variants in carcinogenesis.

The etiology of uterine sarcomas: a pooled analysis of the epidemiology of endometrial cancer consortium.

BACKGROUND: Uterine sarcomas are characterised by early age at diagnosis, poor prognosis, and higher incidence among Black compared with White women, but their aetiology is poorly understood. Therefore, we performed a pooled analysis of data collected in the Epidemiology of Endometrial Cancer Consortium. We also examined risk factor associations for malignant mixed mullerian tumours (MMMTs) and endometrioid endometrial carcinomas (EECs) for comparison purposes. METHODS: We pooled data on 229 uterine sarcomas, 244 MMMTs, 7623 EEC cases, and 28,829 controls. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for risk factors associated with uterine sarcoma, MMMT, and EEC were estimated with polytomous logistic regression. We also examined associations between epidemiological factors and histological subtypes of uterine sarcoma. RESULTS: Significant risk factors for uterine sarcoma included obesity (body mass index (BMI)≥30 vs BMI<25 kg m(-2) (OR: 1.73, 95% CI: 1.22-2.46), P-trend=0.008) and history of diabetes (OR: 2.33, 95% CI: 1.41-3.83). Older age at menarche was inversely associated with uterine sarcoma risk (≥15 years vs <11 years (OR: 0.70, 95% CI: 0.34-1.44), P-trend: 0.04). BMI was significantly, but less strongly related to uterine sarcomas compared with EECs (OR: 3.03, 95% CI: 2.82-3.26) or MMMTs (OR: 2.25, 95% CI: 1.60-3.15, P-heterogeneity=0.01). CONCLUSION: In the largest aetiological study of uterine sarcomas, associations between menstrual, hormonal, and anthropometric risk factors and uterine sarcoma were similar to those identified for EEC. Further exploration of factors that might explain patterns of age- and race-specific incidence rates for uterine sarcoma are needed.

Evaluation of variation in the phosphoinositide-3-kinase catalytic subunit alpha oncogene and breast cancer risk.

BACKGROUND: Somatic mutations in phosphoinositide-3-kinase catalytic subunit alpha (PIK3CA) are frequent in breast tumours and have been associated with oestrogen receptor (ER) expression, human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 overexpression, lymph node metastasis and poor survival. The goal of this study was to evaluate the association between inherited variation in this oncogene and risk of breast cancer. METHODS: A single-nucleotide polymorphism from the PIK3CA locus that was associated with breast cancer in a study of Caucasian breast cancer cases and controls from the Mayo Clinic (MCBCS) was genotyped in 5436 cases and 5280 controls from the Cancer Genetic Markers of Susceptibility (CGEMS) study and in 30 949 cases and 29 788 controls from the Breast Cancer Association Consortium (BCAC). RESULTS: Rs1607237 was significantly associated with a decreased risk of breast cancer in MCBCS, CGEMS and all studies of white Europeans combined (odds ratio (OR)=0.97, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.95-0.99, P=4.6 × 10(-3)), but did not reach significance in the BCAC replication study alone (OR=0.98, 95% CI 0.96-1.01, P=0.139). CONCLUSION: Common germline variation in PIK3CA does not have a strong influence on the risk of breast cancer.

Prolactin serum levels and breast cancer: relationships with risk factors and tumour characteristics among pre- and postmenopausal women in a population-based case-control study from Poland.

BACKGROUND: Previous prospective studies have found an association between prolactin (PRL) levels and increased risk of breast cancer. Using data from a population-based breast cancer case-control study conducted in two cities in Poland (2000-2003), we examined the association of PRL levels with breast cancer risk factors among controls and with tumour characteristics among the cases. METHODS: We analysed PRL serum levels among 773 controls without breast cancer matched on age and residence to 776 invasive breast cancer cases with available pretreatment serum. Tumours were centrally reviewed and prepared as tissue microarrays for immunohistochemical analysis. Breast cancer risk factors, assessed by interview, were related to serum PRL levels among controls using analysis of variance. Mean serum PRL levels by tumour characteristics are reported. These associations also were evaluated using polytomous logistic regression. RESULTS: Prolactin levels were associated with nulliparity in premenopausal (P=0.05) but not in postmenopausal women. Associations in postmenopausal women included an inverse association with increasing body mass index (P=0.0008) and direct association with use of recent/current hormone therapy (P=0.0006). In case-only analyses, higher PRL levels were more strongly associated with lobular compared with ductal carcinoma among postmenopausal women (P=0.02). Levels were not different by tumour size, grade, node involvement or oestrogen receptor, progesterone receptor, or human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 status. CONCLUSIONS: Our analysis demonstrates that PRL levels are higher among premenopausal nulliparous as compared with parous women. Among postmenopausal women, levels were higher among hormone users and lower among obese women. These results may have value in understanding the mechanisms underlying several breast cancer risk factor associations.

Occupation and renal cell cancer in Central and Eastern Europe.

OBJECTIVE: Central and Eastern Europe has among the highest rates of renal cell cancer worldwide. Few studies have been conducted in these areas to investigate the possible role of occupational exposures in renal cell cancer aetiology. The purpose of this study was to examine the association of renal cell cancer with employment in specific occupations and industries. METHODS: From 1999 to 2003, we conducted a hospital-based case-control study in seven areas of the Czech Republic, Poland, Romania and Russia. A detailed occupational history was collected from renal cell cancer cases and controls, together with information on potential confounders. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% CI of cancer risk were calculated for having ever been employed in selected jobs and industries, with follow-up analyses examining duration of employment. RESULTS: A total of 992 histologically confirmed incident renal cell cancer cases and 1459 controls were included in the analysis. An increased risk of renal cell cancer was observed for workers in agricultural labour and animal husbandry (OR 1.43; 95% CI 1.05 to 1.93), particularly among women employed as general farm workers (OR 2.73; 95% CI 1.05 to 7.13). Risk gradients for agricultural work increased with longer employment. An overall increased risk of renal cell cancer was seen among architects and engineers (OR 1.89; 95% CI 1.35 to 2.65), and mechanical engineers (OR 1.71; 95% CI 1.03 to 2.84). CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest an association between renal cell cancer and agricultural work, particularly among female workers.

Human papillomavirus infection in women with and without cervical cancer in Warsaw, Poland.

Cervical cancer incidence and mortality in Poland is among the highest in Europe. To investigate infection with different human papillomaviruses (HPV) in Warsaw, Poland, we obtained cervical cell specimens from 834 women aged 18-59 years from the general population, and 88 cervical cancers. DNA of 44 HPV types was detected using a GP5+/6+-based PCR assay. HPV prevalence was 16.6% in the general female population, being highest (24.2%) in women aged 25-34 years, notably among unmarried women (37.3%). HPV prevalence fell to 8.6% at ages 55-59. High-risk HPV prevalence was 11.3%, with HPV16 being the most common type (3.7%). All but one cervical cancer were high-risk HPV-positive, although the importance of HPV16 (73%) was much greater, and multiple infections fewer (1%), than among HPV-positive women in the general female population. In summary, we report a relatively high burden of HPV infection in Warsaw, Poland, where 79% of cervical cancers are theoretically preventable by HPV16/18 vaccines.

Progesterone receptor variation and risk of ovarian cancer is limited to the invasive endometrioid subtype: results from the Ovarian Cancer Association Consortium pooled analysis.

There is evidence that progesterone plays a role in the aetiology of invasive epithelial ovarian cancer. Therefore, genes involved in pathways that regulate progesterone may be candidates for susceptibility to this disease. Previous studies have suggested that genetic variants in the progesterone receptor gene (PGR) may be associated with ovarian cancer risk, although results have been inconsistent. We have established an international consortium to pool resources and data from many ovarian cancer case-control studies in an effort to identify variants that influence risk. In this study, three PGR single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), for which previous data have suggested they affect ovarian cancer risk, were examined. These were +331 C/T (rs10895068), PROGINS (rs1042838), and a 3' variant (rs608995). A total of 4788 ovarian cancer cases and 7614 controls from 12 case-control studies were included in this analysis. Unconditional logistic regression was used to model the association between each SNP and ovarian cancer risk and two-sided P-values are reported. Overall, risk of ovarian cancer was not associated with any of the three variants studied. However, in histopathological subtype analyses, we found a statistically significant association between risk of endometrioid ovarian cancer and the PROGINS allele (n=651, OR=1.17, 95% CI=1.01-1.36, P=0.036). We also observed borderline evidence of an association between risk of endometrioid ovarian cancer and the +331C/T variant (n=725 cases; OR=0.80, 95% CI 0.62-1.04, P=0.100). These data suggest that while these three variants in the PGR are not associated with ovarian cancer overall, the PROGINS variant may play a modest role in risk of endometrioid ovarian cancer.

Genetic variation in five genes important in telomere biology and risk for breast cancer.

Telomeres, consisting of TTAGGG nucleotide repeats and a protein complex at chromosome ends, are critical for maintaining chromosomal stability. Genomic instability, following telomere crisis, may contribute to breast cancer pathogenesis. Many genes critical in telomere biology have limited nucleotide diversity, thus, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in this pathway could contribute to breast cancer risk. In a population-based study of 1995 breast cancer cases and 2296 controls from Poland, 24 SNPs representing common variation in POT1, TEP1, TERF1, TERF2 and TERT were genotyped. We did not identify any significant associations between individual SNPs or haplotypes and breast cancer risk; however, data suggested that three correlated SNPs in TERT (-1381C>T, -244C>T, and Ex2-659G>A) may be associated with reduced risk of breast cancer among individuals with a family history of breast cancer (odds ratios 0.73, 0.66, and 0.57, 95% confidence intervals 0.53-1.00, 0.46-0.95 and 0.39-0.84, respectively). In conclusion, our data do not support substantial overall associations between SNPs in telomere pathway genes and breast cancer risk. Intriguing associations with variants in TERT among women with a family history of breast cancer warrant follow-up in independent studies.

Reproductive risk factors for endometrial cancer among Polish women.

We conducted a population-based case-control study of reproductive factors in Warsaw and Lódz, Poland, in 551 incident endometrial cancer cases and 1925 controls. The reproductive variable most strongly related to risk was multiparity, with subjects with three or more births having a 70% lower risk than the nulliparous women. The reduced risk was particularly strong below 55 years of age. Subjects with older ages at a first birth were also at reduced risk even after adjustment for number of births. Ages at last birth or intervals since last birth were not strongly related to risk. Spontaneous abortions were unrelated to risk, but induced abortions were associated with slight risk increases (odds ratios=1.28, 95% confidence intervals 0.8-2.1 for 3+ vs no abortions). The absence of effects on risk of later ages at, or short intervals since, a last birth fails to support the view that endometrial cancer is influenced by mechanical clearance of initiated cells. Alternative explanations for reproductive effects should be sought, including alterations in endogenous hormones.

Polymorphisms in Th1-type cell-mediated response genes and risk of gastric cancer.

Helicobacter pylori infection, the dominant risk factor for gastric cancers, has been shown to elicit T helper type 1 (Th1) polarized immunological responses. We conducted a population-based study of 305 gastric cancer cases and 427 age- and gender-matched controls in Warsaw, Poland, to evaluate the association with several variants in genes responsible for Th1-cell-mediated response. Genotyping was performed on genomic DNA by TaqMan(TM) assays to determine TNFA (-308 G>A, -417 G>A, -555 G>A, -1036 C>T, -1042 C>A, -1210 T>C), IL1A (-889 C>T), IFNGR2 (Ex7-128 T>C, Ex2-34 C>G and Ex2-16 A>G) and IL12A (IVS2-798 T>A, IVS2-701 C>A and Ex7+277 G>A) polymorphisms. We used unconditional logistic regression to estimate odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs), adjusting for sex, age, education and smoking status. Out of six single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) tested in TNFA, gastric cancer risk was significantly associated with the TNFA (-308 G>A) polymorphism, with ORs of 1.4 (95% CI: 1.0-2.0) for the G/A and 2.5 (95% CI: 1.3-4.9) for the A/A genotype carriers, when compared with the more frequent genotype (G/G) (P-trend < 0.001). Among the three tested SNPs in the IFNGR2 gene, only the Ex7-128C>T polymorphism was associated with increased risk, with ORs of 1.5 (95% CI: 1.0-2.3) for T/C and 1.7 (95% CI: 1.1-2.7) for C/C carriers when compared with T/T carriers (P-trend = 0.01). Subjects carrying both IFNGR2 Ex7-128 C/C and TNFA -308 A/A genotypes had the highest risk (OR = 5.5, 95% CI: 1.5-19.4), although the interaction was not statistically significant. IL1A (-889 C>T) and the three examined IL12A variants were unrelated to gastric cancer risk. Our findings suggest that two Th1-related polymorphisms (TNFA -308 A>G and IFNGR2 Ex7-128 C>T) may increase the risk of gastric cancer.

Established breast cancer risk factors by clinically important tumour characteristics.

Breast cancer is a morphologically and clinically heterogeneous disease; however, it is less clear how risk factors relate to tumour features. We evaluated risk factors by tumour characteristics (histopathologic type, grade, size, and nodal status) in a population-based case-control of 2386 breast cancers and 2502 controls in Poland. Use of a novel extension of the polytomous logistic regression permitted simultaneous modelling of multiple tumour characteristics. Late age at first full-term birth was associated with increased risk of large (> 2 cm) tumours (odds ratios (95% confidence intervals) 1.19 (1.07-1.33) for a 5-year increase in age), but not smaller tumours (P for heterogeneity adjusting for other tumour features (Phet) = 0.007). On the other hand, multiparity was associated with reduced risk for small tumours (0.76 (0.68-0.86) per additional birth; Phet = 0.004). Consideration of all tumour characteristics simultaneously revealed that current or recent use of combined hormone replacement therapy was associated with risk of small (2.29 (1.66-3.15)) and grade 1 (3.36 (2.22-5.08)) tumours (Phet = 0.05 for size and 0.0008 for grade 1 vs 3), rather than specific histopathologic types (Phet = 0.63 for ductal vs lobular). Finally, elevated body mass index was associated with larger tumour size among both pre- and postmenopausal women (Phet = 0.05 and 0.0001, respectively). None of these relationships were explained by hormone receptor status of the tumours. In conclusion, these data support distinctive risk factor relationships by tumour characteristics of prognostic relevance. These findings might be useful in developing targeted prevention efforts.

Skewed X chromosome inactivation and early-onset breast cancer.

BACKGROUND: Skewed X chromosome inactivation may be more common in women with epithelial ovarian cancer and early-onset breast cancer. We tested this hypothesis in a group of 235 breast cancer patients and 253 controls (mean age 45.8 years) from a larger population based case control study. METHODS: We measured X chromosome inactivation with the AR gene assay in lymphocyte DNA digested with the methylation specific enzyme HpaII. We judged skewness using an adjusted measure (relative to the undigested sample) with a cut point of 75%, and an unadjusted measure where skewed was defined as > 90% of the signal from one allele in the HpaII digested sample. RESULTS: There were no significant differences in any of the skewing measures between cases and controls. Using the adjusted skewing measure among pre-menopausal subjects under the age of 50, 14% of cases versus 11% of controls were skewed, OR = 1.2, 95% CI 0.6 to 2.3; using the unadjusted measure, OR = 0.9, 95% CI 0.4 to 2.0. CONCLUSIONS: While we cannot rule out a subtle difference of approximately twofold or less, we have failed to find a significant difference in the prevalence of skewed X chromosome inactivation in younger women with breast cancer compared to controls.

Occupation and risk of stomach cancer in Poland.

BACKGROUND: In spite of the dramatic decline in the incidence of stomach cancer in the twentieth century, Poland has one of the highest rates in the world. AIMS: To evaluate the risk of stomach cancer by grouped occupations and industries, as well as by some specific occupational exposures. METHODS: Cases (n = 443) were newly diagnosed with stomach adenocarcinomas between 1994 and 1996. Controls (n = 479) were randomly selected from the general population in Warsaw. RESULTS: Only a few occupations and industries were associated with significantly increased risks of stomach cancer. The most suggestive finding was for work in the leather goods industry. Risk was also significantly increased among men working in fabricated metal production and among women ever employed as managers and governmental officials. Men ever employed as teaching professionals and women employed as technical and science professionals had significantly decreased risks of stomach cancer. Among men, a significant positive trend in risk with duration of employment was observed for work in the leather industry and special trade construction. No significantly increased risks were observed for specific exposures assessed by a job-exposure matrix or by self-reports. However among men there were non-significantly increased risks with 10 or more years exposure to asbestos, metal dust, and nitrosamines assessed by a job-exposure matrix. CONCLUSIONS: Employment in the leather goods industry, special trade construction, and metal fabrication was associated with an increased risk of stomach cancer among men. However, there were only weak associations with specific exposures. Occupational exposures do not contribute substantially to the high rates of stomach cancer in Poland.

Smoking, alcohol, diet, dentition and sexual practices in the epidemiology of oral cancer in Poland.

The effect of smoking, drinking, diet, dental care and sexual habits on the risk of oral and pharyngeal cancer was investigated in a case-control study conducted in Warsaw, Poland. The study comprised 122 patients (including 44 females) aged 23-80 years with histologically confirmed cancer of oral cavity and pharynx. Controls were 124 subjects (including 52 females) admitted to the hospital for different non-neoplastic conditions unrelated to tobacco and alcohol consumption, with frequency matched to cases by age and sex. Smoking and drinking were strongly associated with an increased risk of oral cancer. Among consumers of both products, risks of oral cancer tended to combine in a multiplicative fashion and were increased more than 14-fold among those who consumed more than 15 cigarettes and seven or more drinks per day. Cessation of smoking was associated with reduced risk of this cancer. The risks varied by type of cigarettes smoked, being lower among those consuming filtered cigarettes only (OR = 1.6) than nonfilter (OR = 6.5) or mixed (OR = 4.2) cigarettes. High fruit intake was associated with significantly decreased risk (OR = 0.4) with the strongest significant inverse association found for fruit juices and citrus fruits ( < 0.01). After adjustment for tobacco smoking and alcohol drinking, poor dentition as evidenced by missing teeth, frequency of dental check-ups and frequency of teeth brushing emerged as a strong risk factor. Number of missing teeth and frequency of dental check-ups and frequency of tooth brushing showed increased ORs of 9.8, 11.9 and 3.2, respectively. Denture wearing did not affect oral cancer risk. No differences were detected in sexual practices (including oral sex and intercourse with prostitutes). In terms of attributable risk, smoking accounted for 57% of oral cancer cases in Poland, alcohol for 31% and low fruit intake for 12%. Attributable risks for low frequency of tooth brushing and dental check-ups were 56% and 47%, respectively. In conclusion, smoking and drinking cessation and increase of fresh fruit intake are likely to be effective preventive measures against oral cancer. These findings indicate also that poor oral hygiene may be an independent risk factor.

Glutathione S-transferase genotypes and stomach cancer in a population-based case-control study in Warsaw, Poland.

Glutathione S-transferases are important in the detoxification of a wide range of human carcinogens. Previous studies have shown inconsistent associations between the GSTT1 and GSTM1 null genotypes and stomach cancer risk. We investigated the relationship between these and related genotypes and stomach cancer risk in a population-based case-control study in Warsaw, Poland, where stomach cancer incidence and mortality rates are among the highest in Europe. DNA from blood samples was available for 304 stomach cancer patients and 427 control subjects. We observed a 1.48-fold increased risk for stomach cancer (95% confidence interval 0.97-2.25) in patients with the GSTT1 null genotype but no evidence of increased risk associated with the GSTM1, GSTM3 or GSTP1 genotypes. Furthermore, the stomach cancer risk associated with the GSTT1 null genotype varied by age at diagnosis, with odds ratios of 3.85, 1.91, 1.78 and 0.59 for those diagnosed at ages less than 50, 50-59, 60-69 and 70 years or older, respectively (P trend = 0.01). This was due to a shift in the GSTT1 genotype distribution across age groups among stomach cancer patients only. These results suggest that the GSTT1 null genotype may be associated with increased risk of stomach cancer.