Growth hormone remodels the 3D-structure of the mitochondria of inflammatory macrophages and promotes metabolic reprogramming.

Introduction: Macrophages are a heterogeneous population of innate immune cells that support tissue homeostasis through their involvement in tissue development and repair, and pathogen defense. Emerging data reveal that metabolism may control macrophage polarization and function and, conversely, phenotypic polarization may drive metabolic reprogramming. Methods: Here we use biochemical analysis, correlative cryogenic fluorescence microscopy and cryo-focused ion-beam scanning electron microscopy. Results: We demonstrate that growth hormone (GH) reprograms inflammatory GM-CSF-primed monocyte-derived macrophages (GM-MØ) by functioning as a metabolic modulator. We found that exogenous treatment of GM-MØ with recombinant human GH reduced glycolysis and lactate production to levels similar to those found in anti-inflammatory M-MØ. Moreover, GH treatment of GM-MØ augmented mitochondrial volume and altered mitochondrial dynamics, including the remodeling of the inner membrane to increase the density of cristae. Conclusions: Our data demonstrate that GH likely serves a modulatory role in the metabolism of inflammatory macrophages and suggest that metabolic reprogramming of macrophages should be considered as a new target to intervene in inflammatory diseases.

A Molecular Basis for the Presentation of Phosphorylated Peptides by HLA-B Antigens.

As aberrant protein phosphorylation is a hallmark of tumor cells, the display of tumor-specific phosphopeptides by Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) class I molecules can be exploited in the treatment of cancer by T-cell-based immunotherapy. Yet, the characterization and prediction of HLA-I phospholigands is challenging as the molecular determinants of the presentation of such post-translationally modified peptides are not fully understood. Here, we employed a peptidomic workflow to identify 256 unique phosphorylated ligands associated with HLA-B*40, -B*27, -B*39, or -B*07. Remarkably, these phosphopeptides showed similar molecular features. Besides the specific anchor motifs imposed by the binding groove of each allotype, the predominance of phosphorylation at peptide position 4 (P4) became strikingly evident, as was the enrichment of basic residues at P1. To determine the structural basis of this observation, we carried out a series of peptide binding assays and solved the crystal structures of HLA-B*40 in complex with a phosphorylated ligand or its nonphosphorylated counterpart. Overall, our data provide a clear explanation to the common motif found in the phosphopeptidomes associated to different HLA-B molecules. The high prevalence of phosphorylation at P4 is dictated by the presence of the conserved residue Arg62 in the heavy chain, a structural feature shared by most HLA-B alleles. In contrast, the preference for basic residues at P1 is allotype-dependent and might be linked to the structure of the A pocket. This molecular understanding of the presentation of phosphopeptides by HLA-B molecules provides a base for the improved prediction and identification of phosphorylated neo-antigens, as potentially used for cancer immunotherapy.

Comparative Analysis of the Endogenous Peptidomes Displayed by HLA-B*27 and Mamu-B*08: Two MHC Class I Alleles Associated with Elite Control of HIV/SIV Infection.

Indian rhesus macaques are arguably the most reliable animal models in AIDS research. In this species the MHC class I allele Mamu-B*08, among others, is associated with elite control of SIV replication. A similar scenario is observed in humans where the expression of HLA-B*27 or HLA-B*57 has been linked to slow or no progression to AIDS after HIV infection. Despite having large differences in their primary structure, it has been reported that HLA-B*27 and Mamu-B*08 display peptides with sequence similarity. To fine-map the Mamu-B*08 binding motif and assess its similarities with that of HLA-B*27, we affinity purified the peptidomes bound to these MHC class I molecules and analyzed them by LC-MS, identifying several thousands of endogenous ligands. Sequence analysis of both sets of peptides revealed a degree of similarity in their binding motifs, especially at peptide position 2 (P2), where arginine was present in the vast majority of ligands of both allotypes. In addition, several differences emerged from this analysis: (i) ligands displayed by Mamu-B*08 tended to be shorter and to have lower molecular weight, (ii) Mamu-B*08 showed a higher preference for glutamine at P2 as a suboptimal binding motif, and (iii) the second major anchor position, found at PΩ, was much more restrictive in Mamu-B*08. In this regard, HLA-B*27 bound efficiently peptides with aliphatic, aromatic (including tyrosine), and basic C-terminal residues while Mamu-B*08 preferred peptides with leucine and phenylalanine in this position. Finally, in silico estimations of binding efficiency and competitive binding assays to Mamu-B*08 of several selected peptides revealed a good correlation between the characterized anchor motif and binding affinity. These results deepen our understanding of the molecular basis of the presentation of peptides by Mamu-B*08 and can contribute to the detection of novel SIV epitopes restricted by this allotype.

Increased diversity of the HLA-B40 ligandome by the presentation of peptides phosphorylated at their main anchor residue.

Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I molecules bind peptides derived from the intracellular degradation of endogenous proteins and present them to cytotoxic T lymphocytes, allowing the immune system to detect transformed or virally infected cells. It is known that HLA class I-associated peptides may harbor posttranslational modifications. In particular, phosphorylated ligands have raised much interest as potential targets for cancer immunotherapy. By combining affinity purification with high-resolution mass spectrometry, we identified more than 2000 unique ligands bound to HLA-B40. Sequence analysis revealed two major anchor motifs: aspartic or glutamic acid at peptide position 2 (P2) and methionine, phenylalanine, or aliphatic residues at the C terminus. The use of immobilized metal ion and TiO2 affinity chromatography allowed the characterization of 85 phosphorylated ligands. We further confirmed every sequence belonging to this subset by comparing its experimental MS2 spectrum with that obtained upon fragmentation of the corresponding synthetic peptide. Remarkably, three phospholigands lacked a canonical anchor residue at P2, containing phosphoserine instead. Binding assays showed that these peptides bound to HLA-B40 with high affinity. Together, our data demonstrate that the peptidome of a given HLA allotype can be broadened by the presentation of peptides with posttranslational modifications at major anchor positions. We suggest that ligands with phosphorylated residues at P2 might be optimal targets for T-cell-based cancer immunotherapy.

Surfing transcriptomic landscapes. A step beyond the annotation of chromosome 16 proteome.

The Spanish team of the Human Proteome Project (SpHPP) marked the annotation of Chr16 and data analysis as one of its priorities. Precise annotation of Chromosome 16 proteins according to C-HPP criteria is presented. Moreover, Human Body Map 2.0 RNA-Seq and Encyclopedia of DNA Elements (ENCODE) data sets were used to obtain further information relative to cell/tissue specific chromosome 16 coding gene expression patterns and to infer the presence of missing proteins. Twenty-four shotgun 2D-LC-MS/MS and gel/LC-MS/MS MIAPE compliant experiments, representing 41% coverage of chromosome 16 proteins, were performed. Furthermore, mapping of large-scale multicenter mass spectrometry data sets from CCD18, MCF7, Jurkat, and Ramos cell lines into RNA-Seq data allowed further insights relative to correlation of chromosome 16 transcripts and proteins. Detection and quantification of chromosome 16 proteins in biological matrices by SRM procedures are also primary goals of the SpHPP. Two strategies were undertaken: one focused on known proteins, taking advantage of MS data already available, and the second, aimed at the detection of the missing proteins, is based on the expression of recombinant proteins to gather MS information and optimize SRM methods that will be used in real biological samples. SRM methods for 49 known proteins and for recombinant forms of 24 missing proteins are reported in this study.

Comprehensive analysis of gluten in processed foods using a new extraction method and a competitive ELISA based on the R5 antibody.

The only treatment for coeliac disease is to follow a strict, life-long gluten-free diet. It is therefore essential to use a highly sensitive, specific technique for gluten analysis in foods. Nowadays, the usual method for determining gluten content in gluten-free foods, internationally accepted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission, is the R5 antibody-based sandwich ELISA, combined with the cocktail-extraction solution. This technique requires at least two epitopes in the protein, but in hydrolysed foods, proteins are fragmented during food processing and converted into peptides in which only one toxic epitope may appear. Consequently, it was necessary to develop a new competitive immunoassay that, together with a reliable, compatible extraction solution, would provide a complete gluten analysis in any kind of food. We analysed commercial foods and home-made maize breads spiked with a known amount of gliadins using the sandwich R5 ELISA and the new competitive R5 ELISA that has been developed. These foods had previously been extracted with 60% ethanol/water, the cocktail solution or the new extracting solution called UPEX (universal prolamin and glutelin extractant solution). The complementary SDS-PAGE and western blot techniques were also used to confirm the gluten content. The limits of detection and quantification of the competitive R5 ELISA were 0.36 and 1.22 ng/ml of gliadins, respectively. The intra- and inter-assay precisions based on two samples were, respectively, 7.3% and 5.4% for the first sample and 9.9% and 6.3% for the second. This new assay was a better technique than the sandwich R5 ELISA for detecting gliadins quantitatively in hydrolysed foods. Regarding the extraction procedure, we did not find any significant interference from components of the UPEX solution at the concentration used. In addition, the UPEX solution extraction was compatible with the R5 western blot and mass spectrometry techniques. The competitive R5 ELISA we developed, combined with the UPEX solution described here, is a very useful tool for detecting and quantifying gluten in any kind of food samples, including heat-treated and/or hydrolysed ones.

Measurement of wheat gluten and barley hordeins in contaminated oats from Europe, the United States and Canada by Sandwich R5 ELISA.

OBJECTIVES: We have investigated the extent of contamination with wheat, barley, rye or a mixture of these cereals in a large number of grains and commercial oats. We have also attempted to identify the type of cereal contaminant. METHODS: Sandwich R5 ELISA (using either gliadins or hordeins as standards), western blot, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometric and quantitative real-time PCR (Q-PCR) techniques have been used to analyze a total of 134 oats, comprising grains and commercial oat products collected from Europe, the United States and Canada. RESULTS: Twenty-five of the 134 pure, uncontaminated oat varieties were found to have undetectable levels of gluten, whereas most of the 109 grains and commercial oat products were mainly contaminated with mixtures of wheat, barley and rye, barley being the predominant contaminant. The percentages of these cereals in the oat samples have been calculated by specific wheat, barley and rye Q-PCR systems. The oat samples were grouped according to the avenin spectra determined by the mass spectrometric technique. The data confirmed that contaminated oat foods, based on the same variety, could have different levels of wheat, barley and rye contamination. CONCLUSION: This study has verified that contamination with wheat gliadins or barley hordeins in oat samples can be measured by the Sandwich R5 ELISA, using either gliadins or hordeins as standards, and also the importance of using confirmatory techniques (such as western blot, Q-PCR and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry) to confirm that most oats are contaminated with mixtures of wheat, barley and rye.

CD106 and activated-CD29 are expressed on myelomatous bone marrow plasma cells and their downregulation is associated with tumour progression.

Malignant plasma cells (PC) from multiple myeloma (MM) patients characteristically home to the bone marrow (BM). High numbers of tumour cells are found in the peripheral blood (PB) only at end-stage disease (secondary plasma cell leukaemia, PCL) in a minority of patients. Using flow cytometric and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) analysis, a high percentage of tumoral BM PC from untreated patients was found to express CD106. In addition, these cells also expressed an activated form of CD29, as determined using the CD29 activation reporter monoclonal antibody HUTS-21. Adhesion-binding experiments showed that CD106+-activated CD29+ BM PC from these patients adhered to fibronectin (FN) in a CD29/CD49d-dependent manner. In contrast, marrow PC from progressive patients and BM or circulating malignant cells from secondary PCL patients expressed lower levels or were negative for CD106 and activated CD29, respectively, with a decreased or zero ability to adhere to FN. The expression of constitutive CD29 and CD49d, however, was similar during disease progression. We conclude that BM myelomatous cells co-express CD106 and a functionally active form of CD29. Moreover, our results suggest that the loss of expression and/or function of these antigens are associated with the progression of MM and may explain the exit of tumoral cells from the BM.