Human Milk-The Biofluid That Nourishes Infants from the First Day of Life.

Human milk is a biofluid with a unique composition among mammalian milks. Besides this milk's major components, its bioactive compounds, like hormones, immune factors, and oligosaccharides, are unique and important for infant growth and development. The best form of nutrition for term and preterm infants is the mother's own milk. However, in the absence of the mother's own milk, donor milk should be made available. Milk banks support neonatal intensive care units by providing preterm infants with human milk that generally has reasonable nutritive value for this sensitive population. However, neither mother's own milk nor donor milk has sufficient energy content for the growth of preterm babies, so adequate human milk supplementation is crucial for their progress. Due to the different characteristics of human breast milk, as well as ubiquitous environmental pollutants, such as microplastics, new methods are required for monitoring the quality and characteristics of human milk, which will lay a solid foundation for the further development and progress of human milk research.

Study on the assessment of humification processes during biodegradation of heavy residual fuel oil.

The aim of this study was to investigate the creation of humic substances during biodegradation of heavy residual fuel oil, because there are indications that substances similar to humic substances are generated during biodegradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. In the study, which lasted for 110 days, biodegradation of heavy residual fuel oil was carried out in a layer of artificial soil substrate. The initial concentration of the total petroleum hydrocarbon in the prepared artificial soil substrate (biopile) was 23.1 g kg-1 dry weight (d.w.). At the end of the process, the total petroleum hydrocarbons were reduced to 8.1 g kg-1 d.w. in the inoculated biopile, while the content of humic acids increased during bioremediation from 3.15 g kg-1 d.w. to 4.95 g kg-1 d.w. The humic acids extracted from biopile during the biodegradation process were characterized by various chemical techniques (elemental analysis, spectrofluorimetric analysis, electrochemical measurements, and size exclusion chromatography). The results showed that levels of C, H and the H/C ratio decreased as the biodegradation process progressed. This indicated that humic acids aromatization process took place and this was confirmed by the spectrofluorimetric analysis. The increase of oxygen percentage and the O/C ratio in the humic acids after the biodegradation treatment indicated an increase in functional oxygen groups. Additional analyses of humic acids from the inoculated biopile showed that they were transformed during the bioremediation process. They had greater redox and buffering capacities and a larger portion of the fractions had high molecular mass. Also, the humification parameters (the CHAs/CFAs ratio and CHAs/Corg ratio) increased during the biodegradation. This is one of the few studies that describes the generation of humic substances during the biodegradation of oil compounds.

Redox properties of transitional milk from mothers of preterm infants.

AIM: There is a discrepancy between the amount of transitional milk produced by mothers of preterm infants and the low capacity of premature infants to consume it. This milk can be used in milk banks, but previous studies found that there are large variations in the level of host-defence proteins in individual samples of milk from mothers of premature infants, which implies that large individual variations in antioxidative defence composition are also possible. METHODS: Milk samples were collected from 20 healthy mothers of preterm infants. We determined the values for non-enzymatic antioxidative capacity parameters (oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC)), static oxidation-reduction potential (ORP), activities of antioxidant defence enzymes and the amount of vitamin C in whole milk, skim and whey fractions of transitional milk. RESULTS: The main low-molecular-weight antioxidant in transitional milk is vitamin C and most of it is contained in whey. ORAC is higher in whole transitional milk than in skim milk and whey, and ORP is lower in whole transitional milk than that in skim milk and whey. Antioxidative enzyme activities are similar in all individual samples of transitional milk from mothers of preterm infants. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that transitional milk of mothers of preterm infants shows slow individual variations in antioxidative defence composition; therefore, it can be used in human milk banks.

Zinc concentrations in human milk and infant serum during the first six months of lactation.

Normal supply of zinc to the newborn via milk is essential for normal development. Using ICP-OES, we analyzed changes in the level of Zn in milk and infant serum in the neonatal period (Day 1 and Day 28 post partum) and at 6 months after delivery, in the cohort of 60 mothers and exclusively breastfed babies. Zn level in the serum showed increase (significant at 6 months) during this period (mg/mL): Day 1: 0.52±0.12; Day 28: 0.59±0.19; 6 months: 0.68±0.28. The concentration of Zn in the milk showed an opposite (decreasing) trend during the follow up: Day 1: 4.70±1.74mg/L; Day 28: 2.65±1.06; 6 months: 0.46±0.36. A significant negative correlation was established between serum and milk [Zn] at day 28 (R=-0.338; p=0.008), whereas a positive correlation was found at 6 months between these parameters (R=0.306; p=0.018). There was no significant correlation between [Zn] in the milk and serum and infants' body mass, mothers' age and mass at delivery. The level of Zn in the milk at 6 months of lactation is not sufficient to meet the recommended values. This implies that in Serbian population, Zn supplementation might be needed in the later phase of lactation.

Antioxidative Activity of Colostrum and Human Milk: Effects of Pasteurization and Storage.

OBJECTIVES: Milk banks collect, pasteurize, and freeze/store human milk. The processing may alter redox properties of milk, but the effects have not been fully examined. METHODS: We collected 10 mature milk and 10 colostrum samples and applied a battery of biochemical assays and electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy to inspect changes that milk undergoes with pasteurization and 30 days storage at -20°C. RESULTS: Pasteurization and storage of raw milk did not affect total nonenzymatic antioxidative capacity, but specific components and features were altered. Urate radical and ascorbyl radical emerge as products of exposure of milk to hydroxyl radical-generating system. Processing shifted the load of antioxidative activity from ascorbate to urate and lowered the capacity of milk to diminish hydroxyl radical. Pasteurization caused a significant drop in the activity of 2 major antioxidative enzymes-superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase, whereas freezing/storage of raw milk affected only superoxide dismutase. Colostrum showed drastically higher total nonenzymatic antioxidative capacity, hydroxyl radical scavenging ability, and glutathione reductase activity compared with mature milk. CONCLUSIONS: Pasteurization and storage affect nonenzymatic and enzymatic antioxidative agents in human milk. It appears that nonenzymatic antioxidative systems in colostrum and milk are different. The effects of processing may be partially compensated by fortification/spiking with ascorbate before use.

Differences in direct pharmacologic effects and antioxidative properties of mature breast milk and infant formulas.

OBJECTIVE: Early-onset and exclusive breast-feeding provides a significant health benefit to infants compared with infant formulas. The aim of this study was to compare mature breast milk with standard infant formulas by examining their effects on non-vascular smooth muscle contraction and their antioxidative properties. METHODS: The pharmacologic effects of breast milk and formulas were examined using a model system of the rat uterine smooth muscle contraction. Electron paramagnetic resonance spin-trapping spectroscopy was used to compare the antioxidative capacities of breast milk (obtained in the ninth week of lactation) with commercial infant formulas against hydroxyl radical production in the Fenton reaction. The activities of superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and the sulfhydryl group were determined in the breast milk and infant formulas. RESULTS: In contrast to the infant formulas, breast milk exerted a relaxing effect on isolated non-vascular smooth muscle. In general, breast milk showed higher antioxidative activity compared with the infant formulas. In all samples, the generation of hydroxyl radicals led to the formation of carbon-centered and ascorbyl radicals. CONCLUSIONS: Human milk exerts direct pharmacologic relaxation effects and provides better antioxidant protection compared with infant formulas because of the presence of specific enzymatic components, such as human superoxide dismutase. We propose that these effects should be advantageous to an infant's gastrointestinal tract by supporting the normal work of the smooth musculature and maintaining redox homeostasis and may represent one of the mechanisms by which breast-feeding benefits health.

A Comparative Investigation of an in vitro and Clinical Test of the Bifidogenic Effect of an Infant Formula.

The bifidogenic effect of an infant formula supplemented with inulin and fructooligosaccharides (4.0 g/l) was examined clinically and in vitro, and compared that of mature breast milk. In a 28-day clinical study, fecal samples of 21 infants, divided into two groups: one receiving the infant formula and the other breast milk, were microbiologically and biochemically examined. In the in vitro investigation, microbiological and biochemical changes in the infant formula and breast milk induced by the action of bifidobacteria isolated from infant feces were examined. There were no significant differences in the fecal numbers of lactobacilli, total aerobes, anaerobes or yeasts and fungi. In contrast, the bifidobacteria numbers in the stools increased significantly during the study in the infants receiving the supplemented formula. The comparative in vitro test showed that the bifidogenic effect was similar for infant formula and breast milk in terms of the number of bifidobacteria. Consumption of infant formula with added inulin and fructooligosaccharides stimulated the bifidogenic effect, both clinically and in vitro. The in vitro test can quickly and objectively determine the bifidogenic effect of infant formula and indicate their quality. However, a clinical test is necessary to determine the acceptance and biological value of infant formula.