Early rise of West Nile fever in Israel, June 2024.

This report describes an unusual surge of West Nile fever in Israel in June 2024, during which 125 cases were diagnosed, compared with 4 cases on average during June in previous years (2014-23). Of the cases, 64 (62.1%) had neuroinvasive disease and 12 (9.6%) died; the 2024 case fatality rate was not significantly elevated vs the average rate in 2014-23. The early rise could be related to a temperature increase in spring and early summer of 2024.

Numb-associated kinases regulate sandfly-borne Toscana virus entry.

Sandfly-borne Toscana virus (TOSV) is an enveloped tri-segmented negative single-strand RNA Phlebovirus. It is an emerging virus predominantly endemic in southwestern Europe and Northern Africa. Although TOSV infection is typically asymptomatic or results in mild febrile disease, it is neurovirulent and ranks among the three most common causes of summer meningitis in certain regions. Despite this clinical significance, our understanding of the molecular aspects and host factors regulating phlebovirus infection is limited. This study characterized the early steps of TOSV infection. Our findings reveal that two members of the Numb-associated kinases family of Ser/Thr kinases, namely adaptor-associated kinase 1 (AAK1) and cyclin G-associated kinase (GAK), play a role in regulating the early stages of TOSV entry. FDA-approved inhibitors targeting these kinases demonstrated significant inhibition of TOSV infection. This study suggests that AAK1 and GAK represent druggable targets for inhibiting TOSV infection and, potentially, related Phleboviruses.

Humoral response superiority of the monovalent XBB.1.5 over the bivalent BA.1 and BA.5 mRNA COVID-19 vaccines.

JN.1, the dominating SARS-CoV-2 variant, is antigenically distinct from ancestral BA.1, BA.5 and XBB.1.5 variants, raising concern about effectiveness of updated COVID-19 vaccines. Here, we compared the neutralizing antibody response against JN.1, 1-month after receipt of the three available Moderna mRNA vaccines. Sera obtained from 37, 30 and 30 XBB.1.5, BA.1 and BA.4-5 -vaccine recipients, respectively, were tested for anti-RBD IgG and for JN-1 specific neutralizing antibody levels. Geometric mean fold rise (GMFR) in JN.1 specific neutralizing titers was 27 (95 % CI: 17-43.1), 10.1 (95 % CI: 6.48-15.7) and 8.77 (95 % CI: 5.69-13.5) following XBB.1.5, BA.1 and BA.4-5 vaccines, respectively, translating into a 64 % lower adjusted response (geometric mean ratio [GMR] = 0.36, 95 % CI: 0.21-0.6) in the BA.1 arm, and a 75 % lower response (GMR = 0.25, 95 % CI: 0.15-0.43) in the BA.4-5 arm. This suggests that XBB.1.5 vaccination will most likely, result in improved effectiveness against JN.1 compared with other COVID-19 vaccines.

Incursion of SARS-CoV-2 BA.2.86.1 variant into Israel: National-scale wastewater surveillance using a novel quantitative real-time PCR assay.

The emergence of the SARS-CoV-2 variant BA.2.86.1 raised a considerable concern, due to the large number of potentially virulent mutations. In this study, we developed a novel assay that specifically detects variant BA.2.86.1, and used it to screen environmental samples from wastewater treatment sites across Israel. By using a multiplex assay that included a general SARS-CoV-2 reaction, together with the BA.2.86.1-specific reaction and a control reaction, we quantified the absolute number of viral copies in each sample and its relative abundance, compared with the total copy number of circulating SARS-CoV-2. Evaluation of the new reactions showed that they are both sensitive and specific, detecting down to four copies per reaction, and maintain specificity in the presence of Omicron variants BA.1, 2 and 4 RNA. Examination of 279 samples from 30 wastewater collection sites during August-September 2023 showed that 35 samples (12.5 %) were positive, from 18 sites. Quantitative analysis of the samples showed that the relative abundance of variant BA.2.86.1 with respect to the total viral load of SARS-CoV-2 was very low and consisted between 0.01 % and 0.6 % of the total SARS-CoV-2 circulation. This study demonstrates the importance of combining wastewater surveillance with the development of specialized diagnostic assays, when clinical testing is insufficient. This approach may be useful for timely response by public health authorities in future outbreaks.

Rapid molecular epidemiology investigations into two recent measles outbreaks in Israel detected from October 2023 to January 2024.

Between late 2023 and early 2024, two measles outbreaks occurred in Israel, each caused by importation of measles virus strains of respective B3 and D8 genotypes. In this study, we validate transmission pathways uncovered by epidemiological investigations using a rapid molecular approach, based on complete measles virus genomes. The presented findings support this rapid molecular approach in complementing conventional contact tracing and highlight its potential for informing public health interventions.

SARS-CoV-2 IgG Levels as Predictors of XBB Variant Neutralization, Israel, 2022- and 2023.

Although a vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 Omicron-XBB.1.5 variant is available worldwide and recent infection is protective, the lack of recorded infection data highlights the need to assess variant-specific antibody neutralization levels. We analyzed IgG levels against receptor-binding domain-specific SARS-CoV-2 ancestral strain as a correlate for high neutralizing titers against XBB variants.

Does the SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccine and its serum IgG levels affect fertility treatments and obstetric outcomes? An observational cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Although there are some data regarding the COVID-19 vaccine and in in vitro fertilization (IVF) treatments, its potential impact in terms of serum immunoglobulin G (IgG) levels has not been evaluated prospectively. This study aimed to assess the effect of COVID-19 vaccine and IgG levels on IVF outcomes. METHODS: This observational, cohort study was conducted at a referral IVF unit. Couples undergoing IVF treatment during the COVID-19 vaccination period were recruited from March-April 2021. The study compared 38 women who had received the Pfizer mRNA COVID-19 vaccination to 10 women who had not and were not infected by the virus. We also compared pre- and post-vaccination IVF treatments for 24 women. The relation between serologic titers and IVF treatment outcomes was also assessed. RESULTS: No significant difference was found between the vaccinated and unvaccinated/uninfected groups regarding the main outcome measures. However, there was a trend toward a higher pregnancy rate for the unvaccinated group (57% vs. 23%, p = 0.078) but no difference in delivery rate (p = 0.236), gestational week (p = 0.537) or birth rate (p = 0.671). CONCLUSION: We cautiously state that the COVID-19 mRNA vaccine does not affect fertility outcomes, including fertilization, pregnancy and delivery rates, obstetric outcomes, and semen parameters, regardless of measured IgG levels.

Measles outbreak associated with a preschool setting among partially vaccinated children in the Tel Aviv District, Israel, October 2023.

In October 2023, the Tel Aviv District was notified of ten cases of measles. The outbreak initiated in a preschool with high vaccination coverage with one dose of MMR vaccine. Serological testing was available for eight patients (six children and two adults). Among the six children vaccinated with one dose of MMR vaccine, primary vaccine failure was demonstrated. Among the adults, secondary vaccine failure was confirmed. The outbreak was successfully contained due to a combination of factors, notably its occurrence within a population characterized by high vaccination coverage in Tel Aviv, during a period of restricted public interactions due to the prevailing state of war in the country. Despite challenging wartime conditions, effective prophylactic measures were promptly executed, encompassing a 2-dose MMR vaccination schedule for close contacts and the broader community of children in the TA district, successfully curbing the outbreak and preventing widespread infections.

Dengue Types 1 and 3 Identified in Travelers Returning from Kathmandu, Nepal, during the October 2022 Outbreak Are Related to Strains Recently Identified in India.

Phylogenetic analysis of dengue serotypes 1 and 3, which were diagnosed in travelers and Nepalese infected in Kathmandu during the October 2022 outbreak, revealed that both serotypes were clustered closest to the sequences sampled in India. This suggests both serotypes may have originated in India.

Immunogenicity of Co-Administered Omicron BA.4/BA.5 Bivalent COVID-19 and Quadrivalent Seasonal Influenza Vaccines in Israel during the 2022-2023 Winter Season.

Vaccination against COVID-19 and influenza provides the best defense against morbidity and mortality. Administering both vaccines concurrently may increase vaccination rates and reduce the burden on the healthcare system. This study evaluated the immunogenicity of healthcare workers in Israel who were co-administered with the Omicron BA.4/BA.5 bivalent COVID-19 vaccine and the 2022-2023 quadrivalent influenza vaccine. SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibody titers were measured via microneutralization while influenza antibody titers were measured via hemagglutination inhibition. No immunogenic interference was observed by either vaccine when co-administered. Antibody titers against SARS-CoV-2 variants increased significantly in the cohort receiving the COVID-19 vaccine alone and in combination with the influenza vaccine. Antibody titers against the A/H1N1 influenza strain increased significantly in the cohort receiving the influenza vaccine alone and in combination with the COVID-19 vaccine. Antibody titers against B/Victoria increased significantly in the cohort that received both vaccines. This study has important public health implications for the 2023-2024 winter season, and supports co-administration of both vaccines as a viable immunization strategy.

Comparison of clinical and laboratory parameters of primary vs secondary dengue fever in travellers.

BACKGROUND: Dengue fever (DF), caused by the dengue virus (DENV), is the most common arboviral disease in travellers worldwide. It is hypothesized that compared with primary DF, secondary DF may result in antibody-dependent enhancement of the immune response, resulting in more severe disease. We aimed to compare clinical and laboratory parameters in travellers with primary and secondary DF to determine whether secondary DF is associated with markers of severe disease. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective cohort study, which included all patients diagnosed with DF at the Central Virology Laboratory of the Israeli Ministry of Health during 2008-19. Clinical, laboratory and virological data were extracted from laboratory and patient records. A diagnosis of DENV infection was based on a positive nonstructural protein 1 (NS1) test, polymerase chain reaction or serology testing for immunoglobulin M (IgM) and immunoglobulin G (IgG). Primary and secondary infections were classified based on travel history, NS1 result and IgM/IgG ratio. Severe DF was defined according to WHO classification. RESULTS: We identified 245 DF cases: 210 (86%) primary and 35 (14%) secondary. Whilst fever duration was significantly longer in secondary compared with primary infections (6.4 vs 5.3 days, P = 0.027), mean Aspartate aminotransferase levels were significantly higher in primary compared with secondary cases (146 vs 65 U/L, P < 0.001), and no other clinical or laboratory parameter differed significantly between the groups. Of note, only four patients had severe DF, all had primary infections and none died. CONCLUSIONS: In a cohort of returning travellers with DF, secondary infection, compared with primary infection, was not associated with a consistent trend towards greater severity of the clinical and laboratory markers examined in this study.

Immunogenicity and Reactogenicity of Coadministration of COVID-19 and Influenza Vaccines.

Importance: COVID-19 and seasonal influenza vaccines were previously given separately, although their coadministration is warranted for vaccination adherence. Limited data on their coadministration have been published. Objective: To compare the reactogenicity and immunogenicity of COVID-19 and influenza vaccinations administered together with those of COVID-19 vaccination alone. Design, Setting, and Participants: This prospective cohort study included health care workers at a large tertiary medical center in Israel who received the Influvac Tetra (Abbott) influenza vaccine (2022/2023), the Omicron BA.4/BA.5-adapted bivalent (Pfizer/BioNTech) vaccine, or both. Vaccination began in September 2022, and data were collected until January 2023. Vaccines were offered to all employees and were coadministered or given separately. Adverse reaction questionnaires were sent, and serologic samples were also collected. Exposures: Receiving COVID-19 vaccine, influenza vaccine, or both. Main Outcomes and Measures: The main outcomes for the reactogenicity analysis were symptoms following vaccine receipt, assessed by a digital questionnaire: any local symptoms; fever; weakness or fatigue; any systemic symptoms; and their duration. The immunogenicity analysis' outcome was postvaccination anti-spike IgG titer. Results: This study included 2 cohorts for 2 separate analyses. The reactogenicity analysis included 588 participants (of 649 questionnaire responders): 85 in the COVID-19 vaccine-alone group (median [IQR] age, 71 [58-74] years; 56 [66%] female); 357 in the influenza vaccine-alone group (median [IQR] age, 55 [40-65] years; 282 [79%] female); and 146 in the coadministration group (median [IQR] age, 61 [50-71] years; 81 [55%] female). The immunogenicity analysis included 151 participants: 74 participants in the COVID-19 vaccine group (median [IQR] age, 67 [56-73] years; 45 [61%] female) and 77 participants in the coadministration group (median [IQR] age, 60 [49-73] years; 42 [55%] female). Compared with COVID-19 vaccination alone, the risk of systemic symptoms was similar in the coadministration group (odds ratio, 0.82; 95% CI, 0.43-1.56). Geometric mean titers in the coadministration group were estimated to be 0.84 (95% CI, 0.69-1.04) times lower than in the COVID-19 vaccine-alone group. Conclusions and Relevance: In this cohort study of health care workers who received a COVID-19 vaccine, an influenza vaccine, or both, coadministration was not associated with substantially inferior immune response or to more frequent adverse events compared with COVID-19 vaccine administration alone, supporting the coadministration of these vaccines.

Progressive loss of conserved spike protein neutralizing antibody sites in Omicron sublineages is balanced by preserved T cell immunity.

Evolution of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) Omicron variant has led to the emergence of sublineages with different patterns of neutralizing antibody evasion. We report that Omicron BA.4/BA.5 breakthrough infection of individuals immunized with SARS-CoV-2 wild-type-strain-based mRNA vaccines results in a boost of Omicron BA.4.6, BF.7, BQ.1.1, and BA.2.75 neutralization but does not efficiently boost BA.2.75.2, XBB, or XBB.1.5 neutralization. In silico analyses showed that the Omicron spike glycoprotein lost most neutralizing B cell epitopes, especially in sublineages BA.2.75.2, XBB, and XBB.1.5. In contrast, T cell epitopes are conserved across variants including XBB.1.5. T cell responses of mRNA-vaccinated, SARS-CoV-2-naive individuals against the wild-type strain, Omicron BA.1, and BA.4/BA.5 were comparable, suggesting that T cell immunity against recent sublineages including XBB.1.5 may remain largely unaffected. While some Omicron sublineages effectively evade B cell immunity, spike-protein-specific T cell immunity, due to the nature of polymorphic cell-mediated immune responses, may continue to contribute to prevention/limitation of severe COVID-19 manifestation.

Humoral Immunity of Unvaccinated COVID-19 Recovered vs. Naïve BNT162b2 Vaccinated Individuals: A Prospective Longitudinal Study.

To study the differences in the immune response to SARS-CoV-2 infection compared to the response to vaccination, we characterized the humoral immune kinetics of these situations. In this prospective longitudinal study, we followed unvaccinated COVID-19-recovered individuals (n = 130) and naïve, two-dose BNT162b2-vaccinated individuals (n = 372) who were age- and BMI-matched for six months during the first pandemic year. Anti-RBD-IgG, neutralizing antibodies (NAbs), and avidity were assessed monthly. For recovered patients, data on symptoms and the severity of the disease were collected. Anti-RBD-IgG and NAbs titers at peak were higher after vaccination vs. after infection, but the decline was steeper (peak log IgG: 3.08 vs. 1.81, peak log NAbs: 5.93 vs. 5.04, slopes: -0.54 vs. -0.26). Peak anti-RBD-IgG and NAbs were higher in recovered individuals with BMI > 30 and in older individuals compared to individuals with BMI < 30, younger population. Of the recovered, 42 (36%) experienced long-COVID symptoms. Avidity was initially higher in vaccinated individuals compared with recovered individuals, though with time, it increased in recovered individuals but not among vaccinated individuals. Here, we show that while the initial antibody titers, neutralization, and avidity are lower in SARS-CoV-2-recovered individuals, they persist for a longer duration. These results suggest differential protection against COVID-19 in recovered-unvaccinated vs. naïve-vaccinated individuals.

Factors Associated With Protection From SARS-CoV-2 Omicron Variant Infection and Disease Among Vaccinated Health Care Workers in Israel.

Importance: A correlation between antibody levels and risk of infection has been demonstrated for the wild-type, Alpha, and Delta SARS-COV-2 variants. High rates of breakthrough infections by the Omicron variant emphasized the need to investigate whether the humoral response elicited by mRNA vaccines is also associated with reduced risk of Omicron infection and disease. Objective: To investigate whether the high antibody levels in individuals who have received at least 3 doses of an mRNA vaccine are associated with reduced risk of Omicron infection and disease. Design, Setting, and Participants: This prospective cohort study used serial real time-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and serological test data from January and May 2022 to assess the association of preinfection immunoglobin G (IgG) and neutralizing antibody titers with incidence of Omicron variant infection, incidence of symptomatic disease, and infectivity. Participants included health care workers who had received 3 or 4 doses of an mRNA COVID-19 vaccine. Data were analyzed from May to August 2022. Exposures: Levels of SARS-CoV-2 anti-receptor binding domain IgG and neutralizing antibodies. Main Outcomes and Measures: The main outcomes were incidence of Omicron infection, incidence of symptomatic disease, and infectivity. Outcomes were measured using SARS-COV-2 PCR and antigen testing and daily online surveys regarding symptomatic disease. Results: This study included 3 cohorts for 3 different analyses: 2310 participants were included in the protection from infection analysis (4689 exposure events; median [IQR] age, 50 [40-60] years; 3590 [76.6%] among female health care workers), 667 participants (median [IQR] age, 46.28 (37.44,54.8); 516 [77.4%] female) in the symptomatic disease analysis, and 532 participants (median [IQR] age, 48 [39-56] years; 403 [75.8%] female) in the infectivity analysis. Lower odds of infection were observed for each 10-fold increase in preinfection IgG (odds ratio [OR], 0.71; 95% CI, 0.56-0.90) and for each 2-fold increase in neutralizing antibody titers (OR, 0.89; 95% CI, 0.83-0.95). The odds of substantial symptomatic disease were reduced for each 10-fold increase in IgG levels (OR, 0.48; 95% CI, 0.29-0.78) and for each 2-fold increase in neutralizing antibodies levels (OR, 0.86; 95% CI, 0.76-0.96). Infectivity, assessed by mean cycle threshold value, was not significantly decreased with increasing IgG or neutralizing antibodies titers. Conclusions and Relevance: In this cohort study of vaccinated health care workers, IgG and neutralizing antibody titer levels were associated with protection against infection with the Omicron variant and against symptomatic disease.

Anti-RBD IgG antibodies and neutralizing antibody levels after the second BNT162b2 dose in patients with plasma cell disorders.

Patients with plasma cell disorders (PCD) are at an increased risk for severe morbidity and mortality due to COVID-19. Recent data have suggested that patients with hematological malignancies, including those with PCD, have suboptimal antibody response to COVID-19 vaccination. We compared the antibody titers of 213 patients with PCD to those of 213 immunocompetent healthcare workers after the second vaccine dose of the BNT162b2 mRNA vaccine. Blood samples were taken 2-4 weeks after the second vaccination and analyzed for anti-receptor binding-domain immunoglobulin G (RBD-IgG) antibodies and neutralizing antibodies (NA). At a median of 20 days after the second vaccine dose, 172 patients (80.8%) developed anti-RBD-IgG antibodies with a geometric mean titer (GMT) of 2.7 (95% confidence interval [CI], 2.4-3.1). In the control group 210 (98.9%) developed anti-RBD-IgG antibodies after a median of 21 days, with a GMT of 5.17 (95%CI, 4.8-5.6), p<0.0001. NA were observed in 151 patients with MM (70.9%) and in 210 controls (98.9%). The GMT of NA in patients with MM and controls was 84.4 (95% CI, 59.0-120.6), and 420.2 (95% CI, 341.4-517.1), respectively (p<0.0001). Multivariable logistic regression revealed that the number of prior therapy lines and age were significant predictors of poor humoral response among patients with MM. Injection site reaction, headache and fatigue were the most common adverse events after vaccination. Adverse events were less common in patients with MM than in controls. In conclusion, a significant percentage of patients with MM developed protecting NA to the BNT162b2 mRNA vaccine, which appears to be safe in this patient population.

Immunogenicity of Omicron BA.1-adapted BNT162b2 vaccines: randomized trial, 3-month follow-up.

OBJECTIVES: The capability of the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant to escape immunity conferred by mRNA vaccines has led to the development of Omicron-adapted vaccines. In this study, we aimed to compare the immune response with the ancestral strain and with the BA.1 Omicron variant after administration of the original vaccine and the Omicron-adapted vaccine. METHODS: This is an ongoing phase 3, double-blinded randomized controlled trial, comparing the original BNT161b2 vaccine, monovalent Omicron BA.1-adapted BNT161b2 vaccine, and bivalent combinations. Each vaccine was given at a 30 µg and 60 µg dose. Primary outcomes considered included neutralization titers of SARS-CoV-2 ancestral strain and Omicron BA.1. Exploratory endpoints included neutralization titers for Omicron BA.5, and the incidence of COVID-19 cases. RESULTS: Overall, 122 individuals (22, 19, 20, 20, 20, 20, and 21 in each arm) completed a 90-day follow-up. Three months after vaccination, adjusting for baseline levels, neutralizing antibody titers were 0.63 (95% CI: 0.3-1.32) and 0.54 (0.24-1.2) for monovalent/60 µg, 0.9 (0.42-1.92) and 2.69 (1.17-6.17) times for monovalent-Omi.BA.1/30 µg, 1.28 (0.6-2.75) and 2.79 (1.21-6.41) times for monovalent-Omi.BA.1/60 µg, 0.96 (0.46-1.97) and 2.07 (0.93-4.58) times for bivalent-Omi.BA.1/30 µg, and 0.79 (0.38-1.63) and 1.95 (0.88-4.32) times for bivalent-Omi.BA.1/60 µg when compared with BNT162b2/30 µg against the ancestral strain and BA.1 variant, respectively. DISCUSSION: BA.1-adapted mRNA vaccines lead to a stronger neutralizing antibody response against the Omicron BA.1 sub-variant.

Correlates of protection against COVID-19 infection and intensity of symptomatic disease in vaccinated individuals exposed to SARS-CoV-2 in households in Israel (ICoFS): a prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Identifying COVID-19 correlates of protection and immunity thresholds is important for policy makers and vaccine development. We aimed to identify correlates of protection of BNT162b2 (Pfizer-BioNTech) vaccination against COVID-19. METHODS: In this prospective cohort study, households within a radius of 40 km of the Sheba Medical Center in Israel in which a new SARS-CoV-2 infection (defined as the index case) was detected within the previous 24 h were approached between July 25 and Nov 15, 2021. We included adults (aged >18 years) who had received one or two vaccine doses, had an initial negative SARS-CoV-2 PCR and no previous infection reported, and had a valid IgG and neutralising antibody result. The exposure of interest was baseline immune status, including IgG antibody concentration, neutralising antibody titre, and T-cell activation. The outcomes of interest were PCR-positive SARS-CoV-2 infection between day 2 and day 21 of follow-up and intensity of disease symptoms (self-reported via a telephone questionnaire) among participants who had a confirmed infection. Multivariable logistic and ordered logit ordinal regressions were used for the adjusted analysis. To identify immunological thresholds for clinical protection, we estimated the conditional probability of infection and moderate or severe disease for individuals with pre-exposure IgG and neutralising antibody concentrations above each value observed in the study data. FINDINGS: From 16 675 detected index cases in the study region, 5718 household members agreed to participate, 1461 of whom were eligible to be included in our study. 333 (22·8%) of 1461 household members who were not infected with SARS-CoV-2 at baseline were infected within 21 days of follow-up. The baseline (pre-exposure) IgG and neutralising antibodies were higher in participants who remained uninfected than in those who became infected (geometric mean IgG antibody concentration 168·2 binding antibody units [BAU] per mL [95% CI 158·3-178·7] vs 130·5 BAU/mL [118·3-143·8] and geometric mean neutralising antibody titre 197·5 [181·9-214·4] vs 136 ·7 [120·3-155·4]). Increasing IgG and neutralising antibody concentrations were also significantly associated with a reduced probability of increasing disease severity. Odds of infection were significantly reduced each time baseline IgG antibody concentration increased by a factor of ten (odds ratio [OR] 0·43 [95% CI 0·26-0·70]) and each time baseline neutralising antibody titre increased by a factor of two (0·82 [0·74-0·92]). In our cohort, the probability of infection if IgG antibody concentrations were higher than 500 BAU/mL was 11% and the probability of moderate disease severity was 1%; the probability of infection if neutralising antibody titres were above or equal to 1024 was 8% and the probability of moderate disease severity was 2%. T-cell activation rates were not significantly associated with reduced probability of infection (OR 1·04, 95% CI 0·83-1·30). INTERPRETATION: Both IgG and neutralising antibodies are correlates of protection against SARS-CoV-2 infection. Our data suggest that IgG concentrations higher than 500 BAU/mL and neutralising antibody titres of 1024 or more are thresholds for immunological protection from SARS-CoV-2 delta variant infection. Potentially, updated protective thresholds against emerging variants of concern could be calculated, which could support decision makers on administration of new vaccination strategies and on the optimal period between vaccine doses. FUNDING: Israeli Ministry of Health.