Exploring our relationship with nature: A modified-Delphi study protocol.

Background: A vital element to understanding the the health and wellbeing of both humans and the environment is human-nature interactions. The biophilia hypothesis is referred to when discussing these interactions. This hypothesis suggests that due to evolution, humans have an innate urge to seek out nature. The concept of nature connectedness was developed from this hypothesis and is rooted in the belief that human identity and nature can be intertwined. This research aims to explore the intricate details of how an individual builds this connection in a meaningful way. Methods: This is done using a modified Delphi method. A Delphi study in its typical form aims to gather the consensus of a group of experts in a specific area of interest. This modified Delphi aims to break down the barrier between the public and the experts by creating a second category of participants referred to as our 'expanded experts.' Expand experts are described as individuals with lived experience of being connected to nature in the everyday. This category comprises of artists, city planners, activists and many more. This allows for a much more inclusive and real-world exploration of experiences. The participants will first take part in a semi-structured interview process to investigate their experiences of connecting with nature. Following a hybrid thematic analysis with both deductive and indictive coding will be applied to the interviews. These themes will be shared with participants for them to weigh the importance of the theme to the construct to allow a deeper understanding of our interactions with nature. Results: The results of this project will contribute to and shape the development of a state-of-the-art nature-connectedness scale. Furthermore, understanding how nature connectedness fits into our modern world will allow for more appropriate nature-based interventions for urban residents and beyond.

This interview-based study looks at the interaction's individuals have with the nature around them and how those interactions help them to feel connected to the natural world. Interviews are taking place with fellow researchers, as well as individuals who work with nature in their everyday. Some examples are nature-based therapists and practitioners, poets, artists, farmers and city planners to name a few. By undertaking this research, it is hoped that we will better understand what nature resources urban residents require in their areas to improve their overall health and wellbeing as well as how individuals interact with the resources the already have access to. The end goal is to produce a method to measure these interactions for future research and practical use.

Effects of immersive virtual nature on nature connectedness: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Objective: This study systematically summarizes the extant literature on the impacts of immersive virtual nature (IVN) on nature connectedness in the general population. Methods: Papers were considered eligible if peer-reviewed, in English language, comprising experimental or quasi-experimental trials, including at least one outcome relative to nature connectedness in the general population. Database search was conducted on Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, Medline, and GreenFILE (22-28 November 2021). Risk of bias was established by the Cochrane RoB 2 tool. Data synthesis was conducted through meta-analysis according with the Cochrane Consumers and Communication Group guidelines. Results: Six eligible papers (9 studies; n = 730) were selected, in which IVN was compared to (i) non-immersive virtual nature, (ii) immersive virtual built environments, (iii) non-immersive virtual built environments, and (iv) actual nature. The risk of bias was predominantly "low" or of "some concerns." Meta-analyses showed a statistically significant overall effect for the first (g = 0.26; 95% CI = 0.06-0.45; I2 = 35%) and fourth group (g = -1.98; 95% CI = -3.21 to -0.75; I2 = 96%), the former in favor of IVN and the latter in favor of actual nature. Subgroup analyses were conducted for the first and second groups of studies to explore possible sources of heterogeneity. The small number of studies available limits the validity of the outcomes of the meta-analyses. Conclusion: The findings indicate that IVN may be an effective tool for the promotion of nature connectedness, although the evidence in this field is still limited and largely mixed. Recommendations for future research are discussed.

Environmental health impacts and inequalities in green space and air pollution in six medium-sized European cities.

BACKGROUND: The GoGreenRoutes project aims to introduce co-created nature-based solutions (NBS) to enhance environmental quality in six medium-sized cities (Burgas, Lahti, Limerick, Tallinn, Umeå, and Versailles). We estimated the mortality and economic impacts attributed to suboptimal exposure to green space and air pollution, economic impacts, and the distribution thereof the adult population by socioeconomic status. METHODS: We retrieved data from publicly accessible databases on green space (NDVI and % Green Area), air pollution (NO2 and PM2.5) and population (≥20 years, n = 804,975) at a 250m × 250m grid-cell level, and mortality for each city for 2015. We compared baseline exposures at the grid-cell to World Health Organization's recommendations and guidelines. We applied a comparative risk assessment to estimate the mortality burden attributable to not achieving the recommendations and guidelines. We estimated attributable mortality distributions and the association with income levels. RESULTS: We found high variability in air pollution and green spaces levels. Around 60% of the population lacked green space and 90% were exposed to harmful air pollution. Overall, we estimated age-standardized mortality rates varying from 10 (Umeå) to 92 (Burgas) deaths per 100,000 persons attributable to low NDVI levels; 3 (Lahti) to 38 (Burgas) per 100,000 persons to lack of % Green Area; 1 (Umeå) to 88 (Tallinn) per 100,000 persons to exceedances of NO2 guidelines; and 1 (Umeå) to 206 (Burgas) per 100,000 persons to exceedances of PM2.5 guidelines. Lower income associated with higher or lower mortality impacts depending on whether deprived populations lived in the densely constructed, highly-trafficked city centre or greener, less polluted outskirts. CONCLUSIONS: We attributed a considerable mortality burden to lack of green spaces and higher air pollution, which was unevenly distributed across different social groups. NBS and health-promoting initiatives should consider socioeconomic aspects to regenerate urban areas while providing equally good environments.

Natural environments, psychosocial health, and health behaviors in a crisis - A scoping review of the literature in the COVID-19 context.

The COVID-19 outbreak led to major restrictions globally, affecting people's psychosocial health and their health behaviors. Thus, the purpose of this scoping review was to summarize the available research regarding nature and health in the COVID-19 context. Keywords relating to natural environments and COVID-19 were combined to conduct a systematic online search in six major databases. Eligibility criteria were a) published since 2020 with data collected in the COVID-19 context b) peer-reviewed, c) original empirical data collected on human participants, d) investigated the association between natural environments and psychosocial health or health behaviors, and e) English, German, or Scandinavian languages. Out of 9126 articles being screened, we identified 188 relevant articles, representing 187 distinct studies. Most research focused on adults in the general population and was predominantly conducted in the USA, Europe, and China. Overall, the findings indicate that nature may mitigate the impact of COVID-19 on psychological health and physical activity. Through a systematic thematic analysis of the extracted data, three primary themes were identified: 1) type of nature assessed, 2) psychosocial health and health behaviors investigated, and 3) heterogeneity in the nature-health relationship. Research gaps in the COVID-19 context were identified regarding I) nature characteristics that promote psychosocial health and health behaviors, II) investigations of digital and virtual nature, III) psychological constructs relating to mental health promotion, IV) health-promoting behaviors other than physical activity, V) underlying mechanisms regarding heterogeneity in the nature-health relationship based on human, nature, and geographic characteristics, and VI) research focusing on vulnerable groups. Overall, natural environments demonstrate considerable potential in buffering the impact of stressful events on a population level on mental health. However, future research is warranted to fill the mentioned research gaps and to examine the long-term effects of nature exposure during COVID-19.

Effects of immersive virtual nature on nature connectedness: A systematic review protocol.

Objective: Nature Connectedness, an individual's cognitive, affective, and behavioral connection with the natural world, has been linked to various health and well-being outcomes. As Nature Connectedness can be elicited and strengthened through direct contact with nature, in the past decade studies have investigated whether similar effects can be achieved through technologies that simulate highly immersive and realistic experiences of nature, such as Immersive Virtual Nature. This protocol describes the methodology for a systematic review that will summarize the existing evidence on the effects of Immersive Virtual Nature on Nature Connectedness in non-clinical populations. Methods: The review will be conducted following the guidelines of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and MetaAnalyses. Terms such as "immersive virtual environment," "natural setting*," and "contact with nature" were searched in Scopus, WebOfScience, GoogleScholar, Medline, and GreenFILE (22-28 November 2021). Papers in English, describing experimental studies, with or without control/comparison, and testing the effects of Immersive Virtual Nature interventions on Nature Connectedness outcomes in non-clinical populations were included. The risk of bias will be assessed using Cochrane's Risk of Bias 2 for randomized studies, and the Risk Of Bias In Non-randomized Studies - of Interventions. The data synthesis will be performed through meta-analysis, assuming that the Cochrane Consumers and Communication Group guidelines are met. Conclusion: The findings will be relevant for understanding the potential and challenges of Immersive Virtual Nature as a tool to promote health and well-being in the general population, providing information on the consistency and limitations of the existing literature and recommendations for future research.

What socio-demographic characteristics of university students in Southern Germany predict their urban nature connectedness?

Promoting mental health addresses a global societal challenge. Nature connectedness, or relatedness to natural systems, is associated with increased well-being and mental health. Among urban populations, nature connectedness has been reported as lower. Nature connectedness in urban settings has been somewhat overlooked by researchers. This cross-sectional online study addressed this issue by identifying socio-demographic predictors of urban nature connectedness among 165 students, aged 20 to 40, from the Technical University of Munich. Analysis of the data from 153 female university students was conducted using ordinal regressions, (a) separately and (b) merged with their 12 male counterparts. A separate gender analysis for males could not be performed, due to sample size limitations. Although access to nature and a considerable nature dose in terms of frequency and duration of nature contact were noted, possibly achieved through the engagement in outdoor activities, urban nature connectedness was rather low. Results showed that urban nature connectedness was negatively predicted by living in a rural area and positively predicted by engagement in outdoor activities and increased hours per week spent in nature. This information can help researchers operationalize the construct of urban nature connectedness. Furthermore, it can aid the development of interventions aimed at promoting urban nature connectedness, by encouraging urban inhabitants to (repeatedly) get in contact with and spend time in provided high-quality urban nature (e.g., during outdoor activities). To draw conclusions about causality, further research is required to identify a clear cause-effect relationship between socio-demographic characteristics and urban nature connectedness. Based on a researched dose-response relationship, a(n) (inter)national recommendation for the duration of nature contact should be established to promote urban nature connectedness and, therewith, health in urban inhabitants. Future research should also investigate further potential individual influencing factors, as well as gender and within/between-country differences among urban inhabitants.

Mental Health Measurement in a Post Covid-19 World: Psychometric Properties and Invariance of the DASS-21 in Athletes and Non-athletes.

Psychological science faces a call to action researching the implications of the corona virus disease 2019 (Covid-19) pandemic. Rapid reviews have reported that maintaining rigorous research standards is a priority for the field, such as ensuring reliable and valid measurement, when investigating people's experience of Covid-19 (O'Connor et al., 2020). However, no research to date has validated a measure mental health symptomology for an athlete population. The current research addresses this gap by examining the internal consistency, factor structure, invariance, and convergent validity of the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21; Lovibond and Lovibond, 1995) in two athlete samples. Participants completed the DASS-21 and sport-specific measures of mental health such as the Profile of Mood States - Depression subscale (POMS-D), Sport Anxiety Scale-2 (SAS-2), Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ), and Athlete Psychological Strain Questionnaire (APSQ). In sample one (n = 894), results of exploratory structural equation modeling indicated that a three-factor model provided good fit to the data, but a bifactor model provided better fit. Factor loadings indicated minimal misspecification and higher loadings on the general-factor. Invariance testing suggested equivalence across gender, athletic expertise, sport type, and injury status. Further, latent mean differences analyses indicated that females and injured athletes scored higher than male and non-injured athletes on all DASS-21 factors reporting higher mental health symptomology, those with more expertise scored higher on the general-factor and depression and those with less expertise scored higher on anxiety and stress, and no differences between team and individual athletes. In sample two (n = 589), the bifactor structure was replicated. Results largely supported the scales convergent validity with depression predicting POMS-D scores, whereas all three subscales predicted the SAS-2, ABQ, and APSQ scores. Internal consistency was acceptable in both samples. The current work provides initial support for use of the DASS-21 as an operationalisation of mental health symptomology in athletes. Theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed.

The Effects of Workplace Nature-Based Interventions on the Mental Health and Well-Being of Employees: A Systematic Review.

Mental health in the workplace is a societal challenge with serious economical and human costs. Most prevalent mental disorders in the workforce (e.g., depression), however, are preventable. There is widespread agreement about the favorable effects of nature exposure and consequently, nature-based interventions (NBI) in the workplace have been proposed as a cost-effective approach to promote good health among employees. The objective of the present study was to systematically review scientific evidence on the effectiveness of NBI to promote mental health and well-being among actual employees in actual workplace settings. The review was conducted and presented in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines. The literature search was performed on five databases (PubMed, Embase, CENTRAL, CINHAL, and PsycINFO), hand-searching of field-specific journals, and the reference lists of retrieved papers over the past 5 years up to November (13th, 2018). Studies were eligible for inclusion if they (i) were randomized or nonrandomized controlled trials; (ii) comprised samples of actual employees; (iii) implemented a workplace-based intervention with exposure to nature; (iv) included comparison conditions that displayed a clear contrast to NBIs; and (v) investigated the quantitative effects on mental health or well-being. No restrictions on type of employees or workplace, publication period, or language of the publication were set. Risk of bias was assessed using the Cochrane's RoB2 tool. Narrative synthesis was performed due to large heterogeneity in outcome variables. Of the 510 articles identified, 10 NBIs (nine papers) met the eligibility criteria. The outcomes were grouped in five categories: (i) mental health indices, (ii) cognitive ability, (iii) recovery and restoration, (iv) work and life satisfaction, and (v) psychophysiological indicators. Narrative synthesis indicates consistently positive effects on mental health indices and cognitive ability, while mixed results were found for the other outcome categories. Caution must be given when interpreting the current evidence in this emerging research field because of the diversity of NBIs and the overall high risk of bias in the individual studies. Although in this field often researchers have to balance scientific rigor and ecological validity, there is a need for large, well-designed and rigorously conducted trials grounded in contemporary theories.

Enable, Reconnect and Augment: A New ERA of Virtual Nature Research and Application.

Being exposed to natural environments is associated with improved health and well-being, as these environments are believed to promote feelings of "being away" from everyday struggles, positive emotional reactions and stress reduction. Despite these positive effects, humanity is becoming increasingly more distanced from nature due to societal changes, such as increased urbanization and the reduced accessibility of natural environments. Technology is also partly to blame, as research suggests that people replace nature contact with increased screen time. In this cross-section between nature and technology, we find technological nature which is progressing towards a point where we may be capable of simulating exposure to real nature. Concerns have been raised regarding this technology, as it is feared it will replace real nature. However, research suggests that virtual nature may have a more positive impact on society than a mere replacement of real nature, and this review propose several areas where virtual nature may be a beneficial addition to actual nature (Enable), help people reconnect with the real natural world (Reconnect) and "boost" human-nature interactions (Augment). Based on the current research and theoretical framework, this review proposes guidelines for future research within these areas, with the aim of advancing the field by producing high quality research.

International consensus statement on the psychosocial and policy-related approaches to mental health awareness programmes in sport.

BACKGROUND: Research focused on mental health in sport has revealed a need to develop evidence-supported mental health practices that are sensitive to sport culture, particularly for non-elite athletes. A consensus statement was produced to assist effective mental health awareness in sport and guide programme implementation in this rapidly emerging field. METHOD: The AGREE Reporting Checklist 2016 was used in two international expert consultation meetings, followed by two online surveys. Experts from 10 countries and over 30 organisations contributed. RESULTS: Six objectives were agreed: (1) to define mental health awareness and service implementation constructs for inclusion in programmes delivered in sporting environments; (2) to identify the need to develop and use valid measures that are developmentally appropriate for use in intervention studies with sporting populations, including measures of mental health that quantify symptom severity but also consider causal and mediating factors that go beyond pathology (ie, well-being and optimisation); (3) to provide guidance on the selection of appropriate models to inform intervention design, implementation and evaluation; (4) to determine minimal competencies of training for those involved in sport to support mental health, those experiencing mental illness and when to refer to mental health professionals; (5) to provide evidence-based guidance for selecting mental health awareness and implementation programmes in sport that acknowledge diversity and are quality assured; and (6) to identify the need for administrators, parents, officials, coaches, athletes and workers to establish important roles in the promotion of mental health in various sports settings. CONCLUSION: This article presents a consensus statement on recommended psychosocial and policy-related approaches to mental health awareness programmes in sport.

Effects of Action Observation and Action Observation Combined with Motor Imagery on Maximal Isometric Strength.

Action observation (AO) alone or combined with motor imagery (AO + MI) has been shown to engage the motor system. While recent findings support the potential relevance of both techniques to enhance muscle function, this issue has received limited scientific scrutiny. In the present study, we implemented a counterbalanced conditions design where 21 participants performed 10 maximal isometric contractions (12-s duration) of elbow flexor muscles against a force platform. During the inter-trial rest periods, participants completed i) AO of the same task performed by an expert athlete, ii) AO + MI, i.e. observation of an expert athlete while concurrently imagining oneself performing the same task, and iii) watching passively a video documentary about basketball shooting (Control). During force trials, we recorded the total force and integrated electromyograms from the biceps brachii and anterior deltoideus. We also measured skin conductance from two finger electrodes as an index of sympathetic nervous system activity. Both AO and AO + MI outperformed the Control condition in terms of total force (2.79-3.68%, p < 0.001). For all conditions, we recorded a positive relationship between the biceps brachii activation and the total force developed during the task. However, only during AO was a positive relationship observed between the activation of the anterior deltoideus and the total force. We interpreted the results with reference to the statements of the psycho-neuromuscular theory of mental practice. Present findings extend current knowledge regarding the priming effects of AO and AO + MI on muscle function, and may contribute to the optimization of training programs in sports and rehabilitation.

Acquisition and consolidation of implicit motor learning with physical and mental practice across multiple days of anodal tDCS.

BACKGROUND: Acquisition and consolidation of a new motor skill occurs gradually over long time span. Motor imagery (MI) and brain stimulation have been showed as beneficial approaches that boost motor learning, but little is known about the extent of their combined effects. OBJECTIVE: Here, we aimed to investigate, for the first time, whether delivering multiple sessions of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over primary motor cortex during physical and MI practice might improve implicit motor sequence learning in a young population. METHODS: Participants practiced a serial reaction time task (SRTT) either physically or through MI, and concomitantly received either an anodal (excitatory) or sham stimulation over the primary motor cortex during three successive days. The effect of anodal tDCS on the general motor skill and sequence specific learning were assessed on both acquisition (within-day) and consolidation (between-day) processes. We further compared the magnitude of motor learning reached after a single and three daily sessions of tDCS. RESULTS: The main finding showed that anodal tDCS boosted MI practice, but not physical practice, during the first acquisition session. A second major result showed that compared to sham stimulation, multiple daily session of anodal tDCS, for both types of practice, resulted in greater implicit motor sequence learning rather than a single session of stimulation. CONCLUSIONS: The present study is of particular importance in the context of rehabilitation, where we postulate that scheduling mental training when patients are not able to perform physical movement might beneficiate from concomitant and consecutive brain stimulation sessions over M1 to promote functional recovery.

An Exploratory Study of Extreme Sport Athletes' Nature Interactions: From Well-Being to Pro-environmental Behavior.

Traditionally, perceptions about extreme sport athletes being disconnected from nature and a risk-taking population have permeated the research literature. Drawing upon theoretical perspectives from environmental, sport, organizational and positive psychology, this qualitative study attempts to explore the lived experiences of four male and four female extreme sport athletes. The purpose of this study was to gain insight and understanding into the individuals' attitudes toward the benefits of extreme sport activities for well-being, resilience and pro-environmental behavior. Eight participants (Mean age = 40.5 years; SD = ± 12.9) provided written informed consent to partake in semi-structured interviews. Each athlete provided written consented to allow the publication of their identifiable data and in order to facilitate sharing of their autobiographical account of their experiences. After conducting thematic analysis, meta-themes that emerged from the analyses were as follows: (a) early childhood experiences, (b) the challenge of the outdoors, (c) their emotional response to nature, (d) nature for coping, (e) restorative spaces, and (f) environmental concern. The findings convey great commonalities across the participants with regard to their mindset, their emotional well-being as well as their connectivity with nature and attitudes toward the natural environment. The cognitive-affective-social-behavioral linkage of the benefits of extreme sport participation for well-being, psychological recovery and pro-environmental behavior are highlighted. This study examining the lived experiences of extreme sportspeople provides a novel contribution to our contemporary understanding of extreme athletes' relationship to nature and its commensurate impact upon well-being and pro-environmental attitudes. The findings suggest that extreme sport participation, while inherently risky has psychological benefits ranging from evoking positive emotions, developing resilience and life coping skills to cultivating strong affinity to and connection with nature and the natural environment.

The Prevalence and Cause(s) of Burnout Among Applied Psychologists: A Systematic Review.

Purpose: Burnout has been shown to develop due to chronic stress or distress, which has negative implications for both physical and mental health and well-being. Burnout research originated in the "caring-professions." However, there is a paucity of research which has focused specifically on how job demands, resources and personal characteristics affect burnout among practitioner psychologists. Methods: This PRISMA review (Moher et al., 2009) involved searches of key databases (i.e., Web of Knowledge, SCOPUS and Google Scholar) for articles published prior to 1st January, 2017. Articles concerning the prevalence and cause(s) of burnout in applied psychologists, that were published in the English language were included. Both quantitative and qualitative investigative studies were included in the review. The Crowe Critical Appraisal Tool (CCAT; Crowe, 2013) was used to appraise the quality of each paper included in this review. An inductive content analysis approach (Thomas, 2006) was subsequently conducted in order to identify the developing themes from the data. Results: The systematic review comprised 29 papers. The most commonly cited dimension of burnout by applied psychologists was emotional exhaustion (34.48% of papers). Atheoretical approaches were common among the published articles on burnout among applied psychologists. Workload and work setting are the most common job demands and factors that contribute to burnout among applied psychologists, with the resources and personal characteristics of research are age and experience, and sex the most commonly focused upon within the literature. Conclusions: The results of the current review offers evidence that burnout is a concern for those working in the delivery of psychological interventions. Emotional exhaustion is the most commonly reported dimension of burnout, with job and personal characteristics and resources also playing important roles in the development of burnout in the mental health care profession. Finally, tentative recommendations for those within the field of applied psychology.

Motor imagery, performance and motor rehabilitation.

Motor imagery has been central to adzvances in sport performance and rehabilitation. Neuroscience has provided techniques for measurement which have aided our understanding, conceptualization and theorizing. Challenges remain in the appropriate measurement of motor imagery. Motor imagery continues to provide an impetus for new findings relating to our emotional network, embodied cognition, inhibitory processes and action representation. New directions are proposed which include exploring the physical setting and conditions in which imagery occurs and investigating if short term impairments to the motor system detract from motor imagery ability and the potential application of motor imagery for recovery.

The influence of gate start position on physical performance and anxiety perception in expert BMX athletes.

The critical importance of the start phase in bicycle motocross (BMX) racing is increasingly acknowledged. Past experiments underlined that the internal lane of the starting gate provides a strong positional advantage. However, how lane position affects start performance and cognitive and somatic state anxiety remains unexplored. We examined the start performance and anxiety responses of youth national-level BMX riders in both experimental and ecological contexts. We used contextualization motor imagery routines to evaluate start performance and state anxiety from the internal and external lanes. Cycle ergometer measures revealed a better start performance from the external lane, but we did not record any lane effect on actual gate start times. Both somatic and cognitive anxiety scores were higher before racing from the internal compared to the external lane. Finally, state anxiety (i.e., somatic anxiety, worry and concentration disruptions) negatively predicted the start performance. Present findings provide original insights on psychological factors involved in BMX start performance, and might contribute to fruitful coping interventions and training programmes in sports overlapping the framework of "handicap races" taking the specific form of positional advantages/disadvantages at the start (e.g., ski/snowboard cross, athletics, swimming, motorsports, etc.).

Talent development of high performance coaches in team sports in Ireland.

BACKGROUND: Coaches are central to the development of the expert performer and similarly to continued lifelong participation in sport. Coaches are uniquely positioned to deliver specific technical and tactical instruction and mentoring programmes that support the psychological and social development of athletes in a challenging, goal-oriented and motivational environment. The current study aimed to qualitatively investigate current coach learning sources and coaches' educational backgrounds in team sports in Ireland. METHODS: Coaches from five team sports in Ireland were asked to complete an online questionnaire. Subsequently male coaches (n = 19) from five team sports who completed the questionnaire and met the inclusion criteria were invited to attend a follow-up semi-structured interview. Inclusion criteria for coaches were that they possess at least 10 years' experience coaching their sport and were coaching more than 4 hours per week. RESULTS/DISCUSSION: Formal coach education does not meet the needs of high performance coaches who rely more on self-directed learning and coaching experience as their main sources of CPD. Although prior playing experience at a high level is both valuable and desirable, there are concerns about fast-tracking of ex-players into high performance coaching roles. CONCLUSIONS: Preferred sources of education and the best learning environment for coaches of team sports in Ireland are more informal than formal. Further research is needed to examine how this learning is applied in a practical manner by examining coaching behaviours and the impact it has on the athlete development process.

Environmental Influences on Elite Sport Athletes Well Being: From Gold, Silver, and Bronze to Blue Green and Gold.

This paper considers the environmental impact on well-being and performance in elite athletes during Olympic competition. The benefits of exercising in natural environments are recognized, but less is known about the effects on performance and health in elite athletes. Although some Olympic events take place in natural environments, the majority occur in the host city, usually a large densely populated area where low exposure to natural environments is compounded by exposure to high levels of air, water, and noise pollution in the ambient environment. By combining methods and expertise from diverse but inter-related disciplines including environmental psychology, exercise physiology, biomechanics, environmental science, and epidemiology, a transdisciplinary approach will facilitate a greater understanding of the effects of the environment on Olympic athletes.