Perceptions and Preferences Regarding Multiple Sclerosis Research Among Racial and Ethnic Groups.

BACKGROUND: For unclear reasons, minorities have been historically underrepresented in multiple sclerosis (MS) clinical trials. We hypothesized that different perceptions and preferences about research participation among racial and ethnic groups contribute to this imbalance. METHODS: Members of the MS Minority Research Engagement Partnership Network developed a Web-based survey in English and Spanish on research impressions, concerns, and preferences regarding study attributes among people with MS. Invitations to take the survey were distributed by network members and partner organizations. RESULTS: We included 2599 participants with MS (2111 White, 215 African American; 188 Hispanic). Consistently disliked study attributes included potential harms to health and confusing study information. Compared with White and non-Hispanic participants, respectively, African American (odds ratio [OR] = 2.05, P ≤ .001) and Hispanic (OR = 1.79, P = .003) participants were more concerned about being used by the research team. Hispanic participants were more concerned about research participation carrying risks to their legal status (OR = 1.70, P = .001). Hispanic (OR = 3.18, P ≤ .001) and African American (OR = 5.51, P ≤ .001) participants were more likely to prefer for the study to benefit their own racial/ethnic group. A top concern across all groups was not being fully informed about the research. CONCLUSIONS: We found strong support for research across racial and ethnic groups; however, minority groups have specific concerns regarding mistrust, receiving poor-quality care, unemployment, health insurance, and legal status. Investigators wanting to recruit a diverse study population are advised to show how they have addressed these concerns and to communicate how the research will advance the science and literature and result in better care and/or other benefits to underrepresented communities.

Human CD68 promoter GFP transgenic mice allow analysis of monocyte to macrophage differentiation in vivo.

The recruitment of monocytes and their differentiation into macrophages at sites of inflammation are key events in determining the outcome of the inflammatory response and initiating the return to tissue homeostasis. To study monocyte trafficking and macrophage differentiation in vivo, we have generated a novel transgenic reporter mouse expressing a green fluorescent protein (GFP) under the control of the human CD68 promoter. CD68-GFP mice express high levels of GFP in both monocyte and embryo-derived tissue resident macrophages in adult animals. The human CD68 promoter drives GFP expression in all CD115(+) monocytes of adult blood, spleen, and bone marrow; we took advantage of this to directly compare the trafficking of bone marrow-derived CD68-GFP monocytes to that of CX3CR1(GFP) monocytes in vivo using a sterile zymosan peritonitis model. Unlike CX3CR1(GFP) monocytes, which downregulate GFP expression on differentiation into macrophages in this model, CD68-GFP monocytes retain high-level GFP expression for 72 hours after differentiation into macrophages, allowing continued cell tracking during resolution of inflammation. In summary, this novel CD68-GFP transgenic reporter mouse line represents a powerful resource for analyzing monocyte mobilization and monocyte trafficking as well as studying the fate of recruited monocytes in models of acute and chronic inflammation.

Opposing roles of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha and growth hormone in the regulation of CYP4A11 expression in a transgenic mouse model.

CYP4A11 transgenic mice (CYP4A11 Tg) were generated to examine in vivo regulation of the human CYP4A11 gene. Expression of CYP4A11 in mice yields liver and kidney P450 4A11 levels similar to those found in the corresponding human tissues and leads to an increased microsomal capacity for omega-hydroxylation of lauric acid. Fasted CYP4A11 Tg mice exhibit 2-3-fold increases in hepatic CYP4A11 mRNA and protein, and this response is absent in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha) null mice. Dietary administration of either of the PPARalpha agonists, fenofibrate or clofibric acid, increases hepatic and renal CYP4A11 levels by 2-3-fold, and these responses were also abrogated in PPARalpha null mice. Basal liver CYP4A11 levels are reduced differentially in PPARalpha-/- females (>95%) and males (<50%) compared with PPARalpha-/+ mice. Quantitative and temporal differences in growth hormone secretion are known to alter hepatic lipid metabolism and to underlie sexually dimorphic gene expression, respectively. Continuous infusion of low levels of growth hormone reduced CYP4A11 expression by 50% in PPARalpha-proficient male and female transgenic mice. A larger decrease was observed for the expression of CYP4A11 in PPARalpha-/- CYP4A11 Tg male mice to levels similar to that of female PPARalpha-deficient mice. These results suggest that PPARalpha contributes to the maintenance of basal CYP4A11 expression and mediates CYP4A11 induction in response to fibrates or fasting. In contrast, increased exposure to growth hormone down-regulates CYP4A11 expression in liver.

The role of protein kinase C in regulation of TCDD-mediated CYP1A1 gene expression.

Cytochrome P450 1A1 (CYP1A1) is induced by halogenated and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons following activation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR). Protein kinase C (PKC) has been implicated in the regulation of this response. In tissue culture, induction of PKC activity with phorbol esters synergizes the actions of TCDD-induced CYP1A1, while PKC inhibitors block induction of CYP1A1 by TCDD. Here, the actions of specific PKC inhibitors on CYP1A1 induction were examined using a HepG2 human cell line (TV101L) that carries a stably integrated firefly luciferase gene under control of the human CYP1A1 promoter (-1612/+293). TV101 cells were treated with TCDD and either the kinase inhibitor staurosporine or one of the PKC inhibitors GF109203X, Gö6983, or Gö6976. Aryl hydrocarbon receptor-dependent activation of CYP1A1-luciferase and cellular PKC activity were measured. TCDD treatment induced CYP1A1-luciferase activity in an AhR-dependent manner, as determined by binding of nuclear AhR to xenobiotic response elements (XREs). Dose-dependent inhibition of PKC activity by staurosporine was concordant with inhibition of TCDD-induced CYP1A1-luciferase activity. However, the PKC inhibitors GF109203X, Gö6983, and Gö6976 blocked PKC activity at concentrations independent of those necessary to block TCDD induction of CYP1A1-luciferase activity. For all inhibitors, reduction in CYP1A1-luciferase activity was independent of AhR activation, as determined by electrophoretic mobility shift analysis of TCDD-activated nuclear AhR. The specific PKC inhibitors did not significantly alter cytosolic or nuclear levels of AhR protein, whether alone or in combination with TCDD. These results suggested that PKC was not the sole factor responsible for regulation of CYP1A1.