A new non-radioactive deoxyhypusine synthase assay adaptable to high throughput screening.

Deoxyhypusine synthase (DHS) catalyzes the post-translational modification of eukaryotic translation factor 5A (eIF5A) by the polyamine, spermidine, that converts one specific lysine residue to deoxyhypusine [N ε -4-aminobutyl(lysine)], which is subsequently hydroxylated to hypusine [N ε -4-amino-2-hydroxybutyl(lysine)]. Hypusine synthesis represents the most critical function of polyamine. As eIF5A has been implicated in various human diseases, identification of specific inhibitors of hypusine modification is of vital importance. DHS catalyzes a complex reaction that occurs in two stages, first, the NAD-dependent cleavage of spermidine to form an enzyme-butylimine intermediate and enzyme-bound NADH, and second, the transfer of the butylimine moiety from the enzyme intermediate to the eIF5A precursor and subsequent reduction of the eIF5A-butylimine intermediate by enzyme-bound NADH to form deoxyhypusine [N ε -4-aminobutyl(lysine)]. Our data demonstrate that there is a measurable release of enzyme-bound NADH in the absence of eIF5A precursor and that the DHS activity can be determined by coupling the first phase reaction with the NADH-Glo assay in which the generation of luminescence is dependent on NADH derived from the DHS partial reaction. The conventional DHS assay that measures the incorporation of radioactivity from [1,8-3H]spermidine into the eIF5A precursor in the complete reaction cannot be readily adapted for high throughput screening (HTS). In contrast, the non-radioactive DHS/NADH-Glo coupled assay is highly specific, sensitive and reproducible and could be configured for HTS of small molecule libraries for the identification of new inhibitors of DHS. Furthermore, the coupled assay provides new insights into the dynamics of the DHS reaction especially regarding the fate of NADH.

Global quantitative proteomics reveal up-regulation of endoplasmic reticulum stress response proteins upon depletion of eIF5A in HeLa cells.

The eukaryotic translation factor, eIF5A, is a translation factor essential for protein synthesis, cell growth and animal development. By use of a adenoviral eIF5A shRNA, we have achieved an effective depletion of eIF5A in HeLa cells and undertook in vivo comprehensive proteomic analyses to examine the effects of eIF5A depletion on the total proteome and to identify cellular pathways influenced by eIF5A. The proteome of HeLa cells transduced with eIF5A shRNA was compared with that of scramble shRNA-transduced counterpart by the iTRAQ method. We identified 972 proteins consistently detected in three iTRAQ experiments and 104 proteins with significantly altered levels (protein ratio ≥1.5 or ≤0.66, p-value ≤0.05) at 72 h and/or 96 h of Ad-eIF5A-shRNA transduction. The altered expression levels of key pathway proteins were validated by western blotting. Integration of functional ontology with expression data of the 104 proteins revealed specific biological processes that are prominently up- or down-regulated. Heatmap analysis and Cytoscape visualization of biological networks identified protein folding as the major cellular process affected by depletion of eIF5A. Our unbiased, quantitative, proteomic data demonstrate that the depletion of eIF5A leads to endoplasmic reticulum stress, an unfolded protein response and up-regulation of chaperone expression in HeLa cells.

Genome-scale RNA interference screen identifies antizyme 1 (OAZ1) as a target for improvement of recombinant protein production in mammalian cells.

For the purpose of improving recombinant protein production from mammalian cells, an unbiased, high-throughput whole-genome RNA interference screen was conducted using human embryonic kidney 293 (HEK 293) cells expressing firefly luciferase. A 21,585 human genes were individually silenced with three different siRNAs for each gene. The screen identified 56 genes that led to the greatest improvement in luciferase expression. These genes were found to be included in several pathways involved in spliceosome formation and mRNA processing, transcription, metabolic processes, transport, and protein folding. The 10 genes that most enhanced protein expression when downregulated, were further confirmed by measuring the effect of their silencing on the expression of three additional recombinant proteins. Among the confirmed genes, OAZ1-the gene encoding the ornithine decarboxylase antizyme1-was selected for detailed investigation, since its silencing improved the reporter protein production without affecting cell viability. Silencing OAZ1 caused an increase of the ornithine decarboxylase enzyme and the cellular levels of putrescine and spermidine; an indication that increased cellular polyamines enhances luciferase expression without affecting its transcription. The study shows that OAZ1 is a novel target for improving expression of recombinant proteins. The genome-scale screening performed in this work can establish the foundation for targeted design of an efficient mammalian cell platform for various biotechnological applications. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2016;113: 2403-2415. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Depletion of the polyamines spermidine and spermine by overexpression of spermidine/spermine N¹-acetyltransferase 1 (SAT1) leads to mitochondria-mediated apoptosis in mammalian cells.

The polyamines putrescine, spermidine and spermine are intimately involved in the regulation of cellular growth and viability. Transduction of human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293T cells with an adenovirus encoding a key polyamine catabolic enzyme, spermidine N¹-acetyltransferase 1 (SSAT1)/SAT1 (AdSAT1), leads to a rapid depletion of spermidine and spermine, arrest in cell growth and a decline in cell viability. Annexin V/propidium iodide FACS analyses, terminal uridine nucleotide end-labelling (TUNEL) and caspase 3 assays showed a clear indication of apoptosis in AdSAT1-transduced cells (at 24-72 h), but not in cells transduced with GFP-encoding adenovirus (AdGFP). Apoptosis in the polyamine-depleted cells occurs by the mitochondrial intrinsic pathway, as evidenced by loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, increase in pro-apoptotic Bax, decrease in anti-apoptotic Bcl-xl, Bcl2 and Mcl-1 and release of cytochrome c from mitochondria, upon transduction with AdSAT1. Moreover, TEM images of AdSAT1-transduced cells revealed morphological changes commonly associated with apoptosis, including cell shrinkage, nuclear fragmentation, mitochondrial alteration, vacuolization and membrane blebbing. The apoptosis appears to result largely from depletion of the polyamines spermidine and spermine, as the polyamine analogues α-methylspermidine (α-MeSpd) and N¹,N¹²-dimethylspermine (Me2Spm) that are not substrates for SAT1 could partially restore growth and prevent apoptosis of AdSAT1-transduced cells. Inhibition of polyamine oxidases did not restore the growth of AdSAT1-transduced cells or block apoptosis, suggesting that the growth arrest and apoptosis were not induced by oxidative stress resulting from accelerated polyamine catabolism. Taken together, these data provide strong evidence that the depletion of the polyamines spermidine and spermine leads to mitochondria-mediated apoptosis.

Genome-wide analyses and functional classification of proline repeat-rich proteins: potential role of eIF5A in eukaryotic evolution.

The eukaryotic translation factor, eIF5A has been recently reported as a sequence-specific elongation factor that facilitates peptide bond formation at consecutive prolines in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, as its ortholog elongation factor P (EF-P) does in bacteria. We have searched the genome databases of 35 representative organisms from six kingdoms of life for PPP (Pro-Pro-Pro) and/or PPG (Pro-Pro-Gly)-encoding genes whose expression is expected to depend on eIF5A. We have made detailed analyses of proteome data of 5 selected species, Escherichia coli, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Drosophila melanogaster, Mus musculus and Homo sapiens. The PPP and PPG motifs are low in the prokaryotic proteomes. However, their frequencies markedly increase with the biological complexity of eukaryotic organisms, and are higher in newly derived proteins than in those orthologous proteins commonly shared in all species. Ontology classifications of S. cerevisiae and human genes encoding the highest level of polyprolines reveal their strong association with several specific biological processes, including actin/cytoskeletal associated functions, RNA splicing/turnover, DNA binding/transcription and cell signaling. Previously reported phenotypic defects in actin polarity and mRNA decay of eIF5A mutant strains are consistent with the proposed role for eIF5A in the translation of the polyproline-containing proteins. Of all the amino acid tandem repeats (≥3 amino acids), only the proline repeat frequency correlates with functional complexity of the five organisms examined. Taken together, these findings suggest the importance of proline repeat-rich proteins and a potential role for eIF5A and its hypusine modification pathway in the course of eukaryotic evolution.

Cryptosporidium parvum has an active hypusine biosynthesis pathway.

The protozoan parasite Cryptosporidium parvum causes severe enteric infection and diarrheal disease with substantial morbidity and mortality in untreated AIDS patients and children in developing or resource-limited countries. No fully effective treatment is available. Hypusination of eIF5A is an important post-translational modification essential for cell proliferation. This modification occurs in a two step process catalyzed by deoxyhypusine synthase (DHS) followed by deoxyhypusine hydroxylase. An ORF of 1086bp was identified in the C. parvum (Cp) genome which encodes for a putative polypeptide of 362 amino acids. The recombinant CpDHS protein was purified to homogeneity and used to probe the enzyme's mechanism, structure, and inhibition profile in a series of kinetic experiments. Sequence analysis and structural modeling of CpDHS were performed to probe differences with respect to the DHS of other species. Unlike Leishmania, Trypanosomes and Entamoeba, Cryptosporidium contains only a single gene for DHS. Phylogenetic analysis shows that CpDHS is more closely related to apicomplexan DHS than kinetoplastid DHS. Important residues that are essential for the functioning of the enzyme including NAD(+) binding residues, spermidine binding residues and the active site lysine are conserved between CpDHS and human DHS. N(1)-guanyl-1,7-diaminoheptane (GC7), a potent inhibitor of DHS caused an effective inhibition of infection and growth of C. parvum in HCT-8 cells.

Depletion of cellular polyamines, spermidine and spermine, causes a total arrest in translation and growth in mammalian cells.

The polyamines, putrescine, spermidine, and spermine, are essential polycations, intimately involved in the regulation of cellular proliferation. Although polyamines exert dynamic effects on the conformation of nucleic acids and macromolecular synthesis in vitro, their specific functions in vivo are poorly understood. We investigated the cellular function of polyamines by overexpression of a key catabolic enzyme, spermidine/spermine N(1)-acetyltransferase 1 (SAT1) in mammalian cells. Transient cotransfection of HeLa cells with GFP and SAT1 vectors suppressed GFP protein expression without lowering its mRNA level, an indication that the block in GFP expression was not at transcription, but at translation. Fluorescence single-cell imaging also revealed specific inhibition of endogenous protein synthesis in the SAT1 overexpressing cells, without any inhibition of synthesis of DNA or RNA. Overexpression of SAT1 using a SAT1 adenovirus led to rapid depletion of cellular spermidine and spermine, total inhibition of protein synthesis, and growth arrest within 24 h. The SAT1 effect is most likely due to depletion of spermidine and spermine, because stable polyamine analogs that are not substrates for SAT1 restored GFP and endogenous protein synthesis. Loss of polysomes with increased 80S monosomes in the polyamine-depleted cells suggests a direct role for polyamines in translation initiation. Our data provide strong evidence for a primary function of polyamines, spermidine and spermine, in translation in mammalian cells.

Characterization of Leishmania donovani aquaporins shows presence of subcellular aquaporins similar to tonoplast intrinsic proteins of plants.

Leishmania donovani, a protozoan parasite, resides in the macrophages of the mammalian host. The aquaporin family of proteins form important components of the parasite-host interface. The parasite-host interface could be a potential target for chemotherapy. Analysis of L. major and L. infantum genomes showed the presence of five aquaporins (AQPs) annotated as AQP9 (230aa), AQP putative (294aa), AQP-like protein (279aa), AQP1 (314aa) and AQP-like protein (596aa). We report here the structural modeling, localization and functional characterization of the AQPs from L. donovani. LdAQP1, LdAQP9, LdAQP2860 and LdAQP2870 have the canonical NPA-NPA motifs, whereas LdAQP putative has a non-canonical NPM-NPA motif. In the carboxyl terminal to the second NPA box of all AQPs except AQP1, a valine/alanine residue was found instead of the arginine. In that respect these four AQPs are similar to tonoplast intrinsic proteins in plants, which are localized to intracellular organelles. Confocal microscopy of L. donovani expressing GFP-tagged AQPs showed an intracellular localization of LdAQP9 and LdAQP2870. Real-time PCR assays showed expression of all aquaporins except LdAQP2860, whose level was undetectable. Three-dimensional homology modeling of the AQPs showed that LdAQP1 structure bears greater topological similarity to the aquaglyceroporin than to aquaporin of E. coli. The pore of LdAQP1 was very different from the rest in shape and size. The cavity of LdAQP2860 was highly irregular and undefined in geometry. For functional characterization, four AQP proteins were heterologously expressed in yeast. In the fps1Δ yeast cells, which lacked the key aquaglyceroporin, LdAQP1 alone displayed an osmosensitive phenotype indicating glycerol transport activity. However, expression of LdAQP1 and LdAQP putative in a yeast gpd1Δ strain, deleted for glycerol production, conferred osmosensitive phenotype indicating water transport activity or aquaporin function. Our analysis for the first time shows the presence of subcellular aquaporins and provides structural and functional characterization of aquaporins in Leishmania donovani.

Differential expression of proteins in antimony-susceptible and -resistant isolates of Leishmania donovani.

Visceral Leishmaniasis (VL) is a parasitic disease caused by the protozoan parasite Leishmania donovani. Resistance to pentavalent antimonials (SbV), the mainstay therapy for leishmaniasis is now a major concern, due to emergence of drug resistance. Hence, understanding the underlying mechanism of resistance to antimonials is required. Here we used quantitative mass spectrometery to identify global proteome differences between antimony-susceptible/-resistant isolates. We detected modification of expression of proteins involved in the key metabolic pathways. Comparative proteomic analysis indicated increase in glycolysis in the antimony-resistant isolates. Elevated expression of stress related proteins implicated in oxidative stress was observed in the resistant parasites. Most importantly, we observed upregulation of proteins that may have a role in intracellular survival of the parasite in the resistant isolates. The identified parasite proteins could serve as surrogate markers for resistance or susceptibility and would also help in understanding the underlying mechanism of resistance to antimonials.

Novel arylimidamides for treatment of visceral leishmaniasis.

Arylimidamides (AIAs) represent a new class of molecules that exhibit potent antileishmanial activity (50% inhibitory concentration [IC(50)], <1 microM) against both Leishmania donovani axenic amastigotes and intracellular Leishmania, the causative agent for human visceral leishmaniasis (VL). A systematic lead discovery program was employed to characterize in vitro and in vivo antileishmanial activities, pharmacokinetics, mutagenicities, and toxicities of two novel AIAs, DB745 and DB766. They were exceptionally active (IC(50) < or = 0.12 microM) against intracellular L. donovani, Leishmania amazonensis, and Leishmania major and did not exhibit mutagenicity in an Ames screen. DB745 and DB766, given orally, produced a dose-dependent inhibition of liver parasitemia in two efficacy models, L. donovani-infected mice and hamsters. Most notably, DB766 (100 mg/kg of body weight/day for 5 days) reduced liver parasitemia in mice and hamsters by 71% and 89%, respectively. Marked reduction of parasitemia in the spleen (79%) and bone marrow (92%) of hamsters was also observed. Furthermore, these compounds distributed to target tissues (liver and spleen) and had a moderate oral bioavailability (up to 25%), a large volume of distribution, and an elimination half-life ranging from 1 to 2 days in mice. In a repeat-dose toxicity study of mice, there was no indication of liver or kidney toxicity for DB766 from serum chemistries, although mild hepatic cell eosinophilia, hypertrophy, and fatty changes were noted. These results demonstrated that arylimidamides are a promising class of molecules that possess good antileishmanial activity and desirable pharmacokinetics and should be considered for further preclinical development as an oral treatment for VL.

Assessing aquaglyceroporin gene status and expression profile in antimony-susceptible and -resistant clinical isolates of Leishmania donovani from India.

OBJECTIVES: Clinical resistance to pentavalent antimonials results from an interplay between uptake, efflux and sequestration in Leishmania. Aquaglyceroporins (AQPs) have been shown to facilitate uptake of trivalent metalloids. Down-regulation of AQP1 in Leishmania results in resistance to trivalent antimony, whereas overexpression of AQP1 in drug-resistant parasites can reverse the resistance. The present work investigates the role of AQP1 in monitoring antimonial resistance in Indian leishmaniasis. METHODS AND RESULTS: Susceptibility to trivalent antimony as determined in vitro with intracellular amastigotes from both visceral leishmaniasis (VL) and post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis (PKDL) patients correlated well with the clinical response. Higher accumulation of trivalent antimony (SbIII) was observed in all susceptible isolates compared with resistant isolates. Reduced accumulation of SbIII correlated, with a few exceptions, with down-regulation of AQP1 RNA as determined by real-time PCR. Cloning and sequencing of the AQP1 gene from both VL and PKDL isolates showed sequence variation in four of the clinical isolates. None of the isolates had an alteration of Glu152 and Arg230, which have been previously shown to affect metalloid transport. Transfection of the AQP1 gene in a sodium antimony gluconate-resistant field isolate conferred susceptibility to the resistant isolate. CONCLUSIONS: Our studies indicate genetic variation in VL and PKDL isolates. Down-regulation of AQP1 correlates well with clinical drug resistance in a majority of Indian VL and PKDL isolates. AQP1 gene expression at both the genetic and transcriptional level showed positive correlation with SbIII accumulation, with some exceptions.

Novel convenient synthesis of biologically active esters of hydroxylamine.

Alkylation of ethyl N-hydroxyacetimidate with readily available methanesulfonates of functionally substituted alcohols and subsequent deprotection of aminooxy group is a novel and convenient method to prepare functionally substituted esters of hydroxylamine with high overall yield. This approach is a good alternative to well-known reaction of N-hydroxyphthalimide with alcohols under the Mitsunobu conditions. The properties of ethoxyethylidene protection of aminooxy group on the contrary to that of N-alkoxyphthalimide group allow to perform a wide spectra of the transformations in the radical of N-protected hydroxylamine derivatives. This is essential for synthetic strategies consisting in the introduction of N-protected aminooxy group at one of the first steps of synthesis and subsequent transformations of the radical.The inhibitory effect of one of the newly synthesized compound, 1-guanidinooxy-3-aminopropane (GAPA), was compared with that of well-known inhibitors of ornithine decarboxylase namely, alpha-difluoromethylornithine (DFMO) and 1-aminooxy-3-aminopropane (APA) on Leishmania donovani, a protozoan parasite that causes visceral leishmaniasis. GAPA, on the contrary with APA and DFMO, in micromolar concentrations, inhibited the growth of both amastigotes and promastigotes of sodium antimony gluconate-resistant forms of L. donovani.

High-throughput screening of amastigotes of Leishmania donovani clinical isolates against drugs using a colorimetric beta-lactamase assay.

A simple colorimetric beta-lactamase assay for quantifying Leishmania amastigotes in macrophages grown in microtiter plates has been reported. The beta-lactamase gene was integrated into the rRNA region of the genome, thereby allowing for high-level stable expression of the enzyme. Both visceral leishmaniasis (VL) and post-kala azar dermal leishmaniasis (PKDL) isolates were transfected with beta-Lactamase gene. These beta-lactamase-expressing promastigotes were used for infecting intracellular J774A.1 macrophages in vitro. Quantification was done by a colorimetric readout with CENTA beta-lactamase as substrate and with an optical density plate reader. The assay was carried out in 96-well plates. Results obtained demonstrate that this methodology could be a valuable high-throughput screening assay for checking efficacy of anti-leishmanial drugs in the clinical isolates.