Metabolome-associated psychological comorbidities improvement in irritable bowel syndrome patients receiving a probiotic.

Our recent randomized, placebo-controlled study in Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) patients with diarrhea or alternating bowel habits showed that the probiotic Bifidobacterium longum (BL) NCC3001 improves depression scores and decreases brain emotional reactivity. However, the involved metabolic pathways remain unclear. This analysis aimed to investigate the biochemical pathways underlying the beneficial effects of BL NCC3001 using metabolomic profiling. Patients received probiotic (1x 1010CFU, n=16) or placebo (n=19) daily for 6 weeks. Anxiety and depression were measured using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. Brain activity in response to negative emotional stimuli was assessed by functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Probiotic fecal abundance was quantified by qPCR. Quantitative measurement of specific panels of plasma host-microbial metabolites was performed by mass spectrometry-based metabolomics. Probiotic abundance in feces was associated with improvements in anxiety and depression scores, and a decrease in amygdala activation. The probiotic treatment increased the levels of butyric acid, tryptophan, N-acetyl tryptophan, glycine-conjugated bile acids, and free fatty acids. Butyric acid concentration correlated with lower anxiety and depression scores, and decreased amygdala activation. Furthermore, butyric acid concentration correlated with the probiotic abundance in feces. In patients with non-constipation IBS, improvements in psychological comorbidities and brain emotional reactivity were associated with an increased abundance of BL NCC3001 in feces and specific plasma metabolites, mainly butyric acid. These findings suggest the importance of a probiotic to thrive in the gut and highlight butyric acid as a potential biochemical marker linking microbial metabolism with beneficial effects on the gut-brain axis.

Female-to-Male Chest Surgery in Transgender Patients: A Comparison Between 2 Different Techniques and a Satisfaction Study in a Single Center.

Background: Gender dysphoria is a distress caused by a mismatch between gender identity and the sex assigned at birth. About 0.5% of the population suffer from gender dysphoria, which represents 25 million people worldwide. Gender-affirming mastectomy is the most common procedure for female-to-male patients. Objectives: The aim of this single-center retrospective study is to present the outcomes after mastectomy and to evaluate patient satisfaction using the BODY-Q questionnaire. Methods: Several data regarding patient characteristics and surgery have been collected. A satisfaction survey has been sent to patients. Two groups, "NAC grafts" and "semicircular," have been compared for complications and satisfaction. Results: A total of 103 patients have had a transgender mastectomy performed by 3 surgeons, representing 206 mastectomies. There were 5 wound infections (4.8%), 8 seromas (6.8%), 10 hematomas (6.8%), and 23 partial/total nipple areolar complex (NAC) necrosis (20.4%). The complication rates in this study are similar to others in the literature. Few studies express interest in patient satisfaction after this type of surgery and even fewer use a suitable questionnaire. Conclusions: Transgender mastectomy is a safe and often necessary procedure to improve the quality of life of patients suffering from gender dysphoria. Nevertheless, there is currently no validated tool to assess postoperative satisfaction within this specific population group.

Determination of energy requirements after minor burns using indirect calorimetry: A descriptive cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Minor burns could be associated with moderate hypermetabolism. In this study, the primary outcome was measured energy expenditure (mEE) determined by indirect calorimetry in patients with minor burns. We also compared mEE with predictive values and actual energy intakes. METHODS: Adults with minor burns exclusively treated on an outpatient basis were included. During the week following injury, a dietitian performed indirect calorimetry (Q-NRG in canopy mode), calculated the estimated energy expenditure (eEE) based on the Harris-Benedict (HB) and Henry formulas, and evaluated daily energy intakes using a food anamnesis. RESULTS: Forty-nine patients (59.2% male; median age: 35 [interquartile range: 29-46.5] years; body mass index [BMI]: 26.2 [22.3-29.6] kg/m2; burn surface area [BSA]: 1.5% [1%-2%]) were included 4 (2-6) days after injury. The mEE was 1863 (1568-2199) kcal or 25 (22.4-28.5) kcal/kg and 1838 (1686-2026) kcal or 26.1 (23.7-27.7) kcal/kg in patients who were respectively fasting for >10 h or not (P = 0.991 or P = 0.805). The total mEE was 104% (95%-116%) and 108% (99%-122%) of the total eEE using the HB and Henry formulas, respectively, with diet-induced thermogenesis and physical activity level. Hypermetabolism (ie, oxygen consumption at rest ≥3.5 ml/kg/min) was observed in 21/49 (42.9%) patients. Energy intakes corresponded to 71% (60%-86%) of the total mEE. CONCLUSION: Performing indirect calorimetry in adults with minor burns revealed that ≥40% of the tested adults presented a hypermetabolism and that their mEE was not covered by their energy intakes.

[Skin substitutes : a step forward in skin regeneration using tissue engineering]. / Les substituts cutanés :un progrès dans la régénération de la peau à l'aide de l'ingénierie tissulaire.

The use of skin substitutes in burn surgery and in the treatment of acute or chronic wounds is constantly evolving. For years, scientists have been researching skin substitutes that can be used in place of autologous skin. New products are regularly developed and approved for clinical use. In this article, we take a look at the skin substitutes most commonly used in Europe and briefly summarize the current clinical experience of our centre.

L'utilisation des substituts cutanés dans la chirurgie des grands brûlés et dans le traitement des plaies aiguës ou chroniques est en constante évolution. Depuis des années, les scientifiques recherchent des substituts cutanés qui peuvent être utilisés à la place de la peau autologue. De nouveaux produits sont régulièrement développés et approuvés pour l'utilisation clinique. Dans cet article, nous examinons les substituts cutanés les plus utilisés en Europe et résumons brièvement l'expérience pratique de notre centre.

[How I treat pediatric burn management in emergency department]. / Comment je traite la brûlure de l'enfant aux urgences.

Acute management in emergency department of pediatric burns is challenging for clinicians. Many of these burns are minor and can be treated on an outpatient basis. However, moderate and severe burns require hospitalization. Although management principles are similar between children and adults polytrauma, children have differences in their pathophysiological response to burn injury. Understanding these differences is essential to optimize the patient care. Particularities of acute management of pediatric burns are discussed in this article.

La prise en charge aux urgences d'un enfant brûlé est un défi pour les cliniciens. Souvent superficielles, la plupart des brûlures peuvent être traitées en ambulatoire. Cependant, les brûlures modérées et sévères nécessitent une hospitalisation. Bien que la prise en charge repose sur des principes similaires à ceux des patients polytraumatisés, les enfants présentent des différences dans la réponse physiopathologique à la brûlure. Tenir compte de ces différences est essentiel pour une prise en charge optimale. Les spécificités des modalités thérapeutiques urgentes lors de brûlures chez l'enfant sont discutées dans cet article.

Unravelling the Influence of Composition and Heat Treatment on Key Characteristics of Dairy Protein Powders Using a Multifactorial Approach.

The purpose of this study was to improve understanding of the structural and functional property changes that milk-protein concentrates undergo during production, particularly how the manufacturing route (heat treatment position and intensity), standardization (in osmosed water or ultrafiltrate permeate) and formulation (casein:whey protein (Cas:WP) ratio) influence the physico-chemical characteristics-hygroscopicity, particle size, sphericity, density and evolution of browning during storage. To obtain a comprehensive understanding of the parameters responsible for the distinctive characteristics of different powders, a multifactorial approach was adopted. Hygroscopicity depended mainly on the standardizing solution and to a lesser extent the Cas:WP ratio. The particle size of the heat-treated casein-dominant powders was up to 5 µm higher than for those that had had no heat treatment regardless of the standardizing solution, which also had no influence on the sphericity of the powder particles. The density of the powders increased up to 800 kg·m-3 with a reduced proportion of casein, and lactose and whey proteins participated in browning reactions during storage at 13 °C. In increasing order, the modality of heat treatment, the standardizing solution and the Cas:WP protein ratio influenced the key characteristics. This work is relevant for industrial applications to increase control over the functionalities of powdered products.

An Extensively Hydrolyzed Formula Supplemented with Two Human Milk Oligosaccharides Modifies the Fecal Microbiome and Metabolome in Infants with Cow's Milk Protein Allergy.

Cow's milk protein allergy (CMPA) is a prevalent food allergy among infants and young children. We conducted a randomized, multicenter intervention study involving 194 non-breastfed infants with CMPA until 12 months of age (clinical trial registration: NCT03085134). One exploratory objective was to assess the effects of a whey-based extensively hydrolyzed formula (EHF) supplemented with 2'-fucosyllactose (2'-FL) and lacto-N-neotetraose (LNnT) on the fecal microbiome and metabolome in this population. Thus, fecal samples were collected at baseline, 1 and 3 months from enrollment, as well as at 12 months of age. Human milk oligosaccharides (HMO) supplementation led to the enrichment of bifidobacteria in the gut microbiome and delayed the shift of the microbiome composition toward an adult-like pattern. We identified specific HMO-mediated changes in fecal amino acid degradation and bile acid conjugation, particularly in infants commencing the HMO-supplemented formula before the age of three months. Thus, HMO supplementation partially corrected the dysbiosis commonly observed in infants with CMPA. Further investigation is necessary to determine the clinical significance of these findings in terms of a reduced incidence of respiratory infections and other potential health benefits.

The interrelationship between sleep, diet, and glucose metabolism.

Obesity and type 2 diabetes (T2D) are increasingly common worldwide. While these disorders have increased in prevalence over the past several decades, there has been a concomitant reduction in sleep duration. Short sleep duration has been associated with higher rates of obesity and T2D, and the causality of these associations and their directionality, continue to necessitate evaluation. In this review we consider the evidence that sleep is an intrinsic factor in the development of obesity and chronic metabolic disorders, such as insulin resistance and T2D, while evaluating a potential bi-directional association. We consider the evidence that diet and meal composition, which are known to impact glycemic control, may have both chronic and acute impact upon sleep. Moreover, we consider that postprandial nocturnal metabolism and peripheral glycemia may affect sleep quality. We propose putative mechanisms whereby acute effects of nighttime glucose excursions may lead to increased sleep fragmentation. We conclude that dietary manipulations, particularly with respect to carbohydrate quality, may confer sleep benefits. Future research may seek to evaluate the effectiveness of synergistic nutrient strategies to promote sleep quality, with particular attention to carbohydrate quality, quantity, and availability as well as carbohydrate to protein ratio.

Heat treatment of milk protein concentrates affects enzymatic coagulation properties.

Dairy ingredients with highly concentrated protein contents are high added value products with expanding market. The manufacture of such ingredients includes a succession of unit operations of which heat treatment is a key step to guarantee the microbial safety, that induces major changes in protein structures and thus ingredients functionalities. However, due to an incomplete understanding of phenomena taking place at high protein concentrations, shedding light on their mechanisms is a scientific challenge as well as an industrial need. In this study, the influence of heat treatment (74 °C/ 30 s) of highly concentrated milk protein systems (up to 20 % w/w) on protein denaturation/aggregation and enzymatic coagulation properties was studied using an original semi-industrial approach. 10 % w/w protein solutions constituted with whey protein and casein micelles at milk ratio, standardized in osmosed water or ultrafiltration permeate were used. These protein solutions were processed in different ways prior the manufacture of powders: heat treatment of the 10 % w/w protein solution before vacuum evaporation, heat treatment of the 20 % w/w protein solution after vacuum concentration, two consecutive heat treatments before and after vacuum evaporation. A fourth powder was prepared from unheated 10 % w/w protein solution. An increase in protein concentration led to a higher heat-induced protein denaturation. This phenomenon was reduced when increasing the lactose content. The effect of heat treatment on the extent of protein denaturation was not cumulative. At high protein concentration, interactions between κ-casein and whey protein were modified compared to milk, as mainly micelle-bound aggregates were formed at pH about 6.7. This phenomenon was enhanced at low ionic strength and lactose content. Our study showed that the enzymatic coagulation properties of reconstituted protein powders could be correlated with their physico-chemical compositions. An increase in protein denaturation disrupted the gel reorganization and led to the formation of weaker gels but did not interfere on the micelles aggregation phase and the early gelation. On the contrary, an increase in ionic strength and lactose content led to higher gel time.

Effects of Dietary Carbohydrate Profile on Nocturnal Metabolism, Sleep, and Wellbeing: A Review.

Sleep is a crucial biological function and a well-established driver of health and wellbeing across the lifespan. In this review, we describe how sleep in humans is associated with specific circadian metabolic and physiological changes, and how the organization of sleep-wake states is related to regulation of nocturnal metabolism during fasting. Among the modifiable factors that can contribute to sleep-related benefits, emerging evidence suggests that diet and nocturnal changes in glucose regulation are strong determinants of sleep quality. Here, we review studies that have explored the importance of quantity and quality of dietary carbohydrates and proteins in modulation of sleep and sleep-related health benefits. Future research may guide the creation of nutritional solutions to improve sleep, which could lead to positive changes in health, wellbeing, and overall quality of life.

Host-microbial co-metabolites modulated by human milk oligosaccharides relate to reduced risk of respiratory tract infections.

Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) are structurally diverse oligosaccharides present in breast milk, supporting the development of the gut microbiota and immune system. Previously, 2-HMO (2'fucosyllactose, lacto-N-neotetraose) compared to control formula feeding was associated with reduced risk of lower respiratory tract infections (LRTIs), in part linked to lower acetate and higher bifidobacteria proportions. Here, our objective was to gain further insight into additional molecular pathways linking the 2-HMO formula feeding and LRTI mitigation. From the same trial, we measured the microbiota composition and 743 known biochemical species in infant stool at 3 months of age using shotgun metagenomic sequencing and untargeted mass spectrometry metabolomics. We used multivariate analysis to identify biochemicals associated to 2-HMO formula feeding and LRTI and integrated those findings with the microbiota compositional data. Three molecular pathways stood out: increased gamma-glutamylation and N-acetylation of amino acids and decreased inflammatory signaling lipids. Integration of stool metagenomic data revealed some Bifidobacterium and Bacteroides species to be implicated. These findings deepen our understanding of the infant gut/microbiome co-metabolism in early life and provide evidence for how such metabolic changes may influence immune competence at distant mucosal sites such as the airways.

Mucosal metabolites fuel the growth and virulence of E. coli linked to Crohn's disease.

Elucidating how resident enteric bacteria interact with their hosts to promote health or inflammation is of central importance to diarrheal and inflammatory bowel diseases across species. Here, we integrated the microbial and chemical microenvironment of a patient's ileal mucosa with their clinical phenotype and genotype to identify factors favoring the growth and virulence of adherent and invasive E. coli (AIEC) linked to Crohn's disease. We determined that the ileal niche of AIEC was characterized by inflammation, dysbiosis, coculture of Enterococcus, and oxidative stress. We discovered that mucosal metabolites supported general growth of ileal E. coli, with a selective effect of ethanolamine on AIEC that was augmented by cometabolism of ileitis-associated amino acids and glutathione and by symbiosis-associated fucose. This metabolic plasticity was facilitated by the eut and pdu microcompartments, amino acid metabolism, γ-glutamyl-cycle, and pleiotropic stress responses. We linked metabolism to virulence and found that ethanolamine and glutamine enhanced AIEC motility, infectivity, and proinflammatory responses in vitro. We connected use of ethanolamine to intestinal inflammation and L-fuculose phosphate aldolase (fucA) to symbiosis in AIEC monoassociated IL10-/- mice. Collectively, we established that AIEC were pathoadapted to utilize mucosal metabolites associated with health and inflammation for growth and virulence, enabling the transition from symbiont to pathogen in a susceptible host.

In vitro drug release, mechanical performance and stability testing of a custom silicone elastomer vaginal ring releasing dapivirine and levonorgestrel.

We have previously reported a multipurpose silicone elastomer vaginal ring providing sustained release of dapivirine (an antiretroviral) and levonorgestrel (a progestin) for HIV prevention and hormonal contraception. During initial development, issues arose due to reaction between the ethynyl group in the levonorgestrel molecule and the hydride-functionalised polydimethylsiloxane components in the silicone elastomer formulation. This unwanted reaction occurred both during and to a lesser extent after ring manufacture, impacting the curing process, the mechanical properties of the ring, and the in vitro release of levonorgestrel. Recently, we reported custom silicone elastomer grades that minimise this reaction. In this follow-on study, we describe the manufacture, in vitro drug release, mechanical, and pharmaceutical stability testing of ring formulations prepared from a custom silicone elastomer and containing 200 mg dapivirine and 80, 160, 240 or 320 mg levonorgestrel. The rings showed mechanical properties similar to marketed ring products, sustained in vitro release of both drugs over 30 days in quantities deemed clinically relevant, offered acceptable assay values, and provided good product stability over 15 weeks at 40 °C and 75% relative humidity.

Depression, anxiety, and happiness in dog owners and potential dog owners during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States.

Major life events, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, affect psychological and physiological health. Social support, or the lack thereof, can modulate these effects. The context of the COVID-19 pandemic offered a unique opportunity to better understand how dogs may provide social support for their owners and buffer heightened symptoms of stress, anxiety and depression and contribute to happiness during a major global crisis. Participants (768 pet dog owners and 767 potential pet dog owners) answered an online survey, including validated depression, anxiety, happiness psychometric scales, attitude to and commitment towards pet, and perceived social support. Potential pet dog owners were defined as individuals who did not own a dog at the time of the survey but would be very or extremely interested in owning one in the future. Dog owners reported having significantly more social support available to them compared to potential dog owners, and their depression scores were also lower, compared to potential dog owners. There were no differences in anxiety and happiness scores between the two groups. Dog owners had a significantly more positive attitude towards and commitment to pets. Taken together, our results suggest that dog ownership may have provided people with a stronger sense of social support, which in turn may have helped buffer some of the negative psychological impacts caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.

Review of Existing Knowledge and Practices of Tarping for the Control of Invasive Knotweeds.

Managing invasive exotic plant species is a complex challenge, especially for Asian knotweeds (Reynoutria spp.). Tarping is a regularly cited but poorly documented control method, which consists of covering the ground with a tarp (agricultural tarp, geotextile, geomembrane, etc.) to create a physical barrier to hinder plant growth and deprive the plants of light in order to deplete their rhizomatous reserves. To improve our knowledge of tarping in order to identify the key factors of its success or failure, we reviewed the relevant grey and scientific literature and conducted an international survey among managers to collect feedback on tarping experiments. In the literature, as well as in the field, practices are quite heterogeneous, and the method's effectiveness is highly contrasted. A better consideration of knotweed biology may improve the efficacy of the method. Based on the bibliography and survey work, we propose practical recommendations including covering the entire stand, extending the tarping up to 2.5 m beyond its edges for a period of at least six years, and ensuring regular monitoring. Even though tarping does not seem to be a one-size-fits-all solution to eradicate knotweed, it could still be a useful control method once knotweed has become a critical management issue.

Human Milk Oligosaccharide-Stimulated Bifidobacterium Species Contribute to Prevent Later Respiratory Tract Infections.

(1) Background: Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) may support immune protection, partly via their action on the early-life gut microbiota. Exploratory findings of a randomized placebo-controlled trial associated 2'fucosyllactose (2'FL) and lacto-N-neotetraose (LNnT) formula feeding with reduced risk for reported bronchitis and lower respiratory tract illnesses (LRTI), as well as changes in gut microbiota composition. We sought to identify putative gut microbial mechanisms linked with these clinical observations. (2) Methods: We used stool microbiota composition, metabolites including organic acids and gut health markers in several machine-learning-based classification tools related prospectively to experiencing reported bronchitis or LRTI, as compared to no reported respiratory illness. We performed preclinical epithelial barrier function modelling to add mechanistic insight to these clinical observations. (3) Results: Among the main features discriminant for infants who did not experience any reported bronchitis (n = 80/106) or LRTI (n = 70/103) were the 2-HMO formula containing 2'FL and LNnT, higher acetate, fucosylated glycans and Bifidobacterium, as well as lower succinate, butyrate, propionate and 5-aminovalerate, along with Carnobacteriaceae members and Escherichia. Acetate correlated with several Bifidobacterium species. By univariate analysis, infants experiencing no bronchitis or LRTI, compared with those who did, showed higher acetate (p < 0.007) and B. longum subsp. infantis (p ≤ 0.03). In vitro experiments demonstrate that 2'FL, LNnT and lacto-N-tetraose (LNT) stimulated B. longum subsp. infantis (ATCC15697) metabolic activity. Metabolites in spent culture media, primarily due to acetate, supported epithelial barrier protection. (4) Conclusions: An early-life gut ecology characterized by Bifidobacterium-species-driven metabolic changes partly explains the observed clinical outcomes of reduced risk for bronchitis and LRTI in infants fed a formula with HMOs. (Trial registry number NCT01715246.).

Feline communication strategies when presented with an unsolvable task: the attentional state of the person matters.

Research on social cognitive ability in domestic cats is limited. The current study investigated social referencing in cats when exposed to first, a solvable, and then, an unsolvable scenario (i.e., reachable and unreachable treats) in the presence of either an attentive or an inattentive caregiver. Cats expressed more gaze alternation (P = 0.013), but less interaction with the caregiver (P = 0.048) and approached the treat container less frequently (P = 0.017) during the unsolvable test, compared to the solvable test. When in the presence of an attentive caregiver, cats initiated first gaze at the caregiver faster (P = 0.001); gazed at the caregiver for longer (P = 0.034); and approached the treat more frequently (P = 0.040), compared to when the caregiver was inattentive. Significant interaction was observed between test and caregiver's attentional state on the expression of sequential behavior, a type of showing behavior. Cats exhibited this behavior marginally more with attentive caregivers, compared to inattentive caregivers, but only during the unsolvable test. There was a decrease in sequential behavior during the unsolvable test, compared to solvable test, but this was only seen with inattentive caregivers (P = 0.018). Our results suggest that gaze alternation is a behavior reliably indicating social referencing in cats and that cats' social communication with humans is affected by the person's availability for visual interaction.

Body composition assessment in children with inflammatory bowel disease: A comparison of different methods.

AIM: To assess different techniques to measure body composition in paediatric patients with inflammatory bowel disease using dual energy X-ray absorptiometry as a reference method. We hypothesised that a three-compartment model may demonstrate superiority over other methods as skinfold thickness equations and bioelectrical impedance analysis. METHODS: Body composition was assessed using skinfold thickness equations, bioelectrical impedance analysis and the three-compartment model. Data obtained with these methods were compared to the results obtained by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry. Statistical analysis was performed using Spearman's correlation and Bland-Altman's limits of agreement method. RESULTS: Twenty-one paediatric patients with inflammatory bowel disease were included: 11 females and 10 males; mean age for the entire group: 14.3 years, range 12-16 years. In children with inflammatory bowel disease, skinfold thickness equations, bioelectrical impedance analysis and the three-compartment model showed reliable measurements with small differences in the percentage of total body fat and good limits of agreements. CONCLUSION: The assessment of body composition using bioelectrical impedance analysis provides a valid and accurate method in children with inflammatory bowel disease as compared to dual energy X-ray absorptiometry. In the future, superiority of 3-compartment model in research and clinical settings of nutritional intervention and disease status in children with inflammatory bowel disease remains to be demonstrated.

Sialylated human milk oligosaccharides program cognitive development through a non-genomic transmission mode.

Breastmilk contains bioactive molecules essential for brain and cognitive development. While sialylated human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) have been implicated in phenotypic programming, their selective role and underlying mechanisms remained elusive. Here, we investigated the long-term consequences of a selective lactational deprivation of a specific sialylated HMO in mice. We capitalized on a knock-out (KO) mouse model (B6.129-St6gal1tm2Jxm/J) lacking the gene responsible for the synthesis of sialyl(alpha2,6)lactose (6'SL), one of the two sources of sialic acid (Neu5Ac) to the lactating offspring. Neu5Ac is involved in the formation of brain structures sustaining cognition. To deprive lactating offspring of 6'SL, we cross-fostered newborn wild-type (WT) pups to KO dams, which provide 6'SL-deficient milk. To test whether lactational 6'SL deprivation affects cognitive capabilities in adulthood, we assessed attention, perseveration, and memory. To detail the associated endophenotypes, we investigated hippocampal electrophysiology, plasma metabolomics, and gut microbiota composition. To investigate the underlying molecular mechanisms, we assessed gene expression (at eye-opening and in adulthood) in two brain regions mediating executive functions and memory (hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, PFC). Compared to control mice, WT offspring deprived of 6'SL during lactation exhibited consistent alterations in all cognitive functions addressed, hippocampal electrophysiology, and in pathways regulating the serotonergic system (identified through gut microbiota and plasma metabolomics). These were associated with a site- (PFC) and time-specific (eye-opening) reduced expression of genes involved in central nervous system development. Our data suggest that 6'SL in maternal milk adjusts cognitive development through a short-term upregulation of genes modulating neuronal patterning in the PFC.