Exploring Subtypes of Repetitive Behavior in Children with Autism Through Functional Analysis and Wearable Technology: a Pilot Biobehavioral Assessment.

Objectives: Prior research has established assessment methodologies, such as functional analysis to identify specific contexts in which restricted and repetitive behavior (RRB) occurs, and measures of heart rate variability (HRV) to index the level of autonomic arousal in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Yet, a gap remains in integrating multiple assessment methodologies to examine the complex underlying mechanisms of RRB. This study piloted a multi-disciplinary approach to assess both the functional behavioral and neurophysiological factors that may underlie occurrences of RRB. The study (a) evaluated the effect of a modified functional analysis protocol on delineating functional subtypes of RRB and (b) explored the effect of using a wearable technology within a functional analysis on identifying the relationship between RRB and HRV. Method: A single-case alternating treatment design was used to randomly alternate noncontingent low-stimulation and high-stimulation conditions in a modified functional analysis protocol. Simultaneous measurement of RRB and HRV was obtained through direct behavioral observations and a wristband that collects blood volume pulse, respectively. Visual analysis of time series data was used to determine the functional subtypes of RRB, and nonparametric correlational analyses were conducted to determine the association between HRV and RRB. Results: Findings from a sample of six participants suggest preliminary effectiveness of the assessment protocol in identifying subtypes of RRB and a significant correlation between HRV and RRB. Conclusions: This study demonstrates the potential effect and usability of a wearable technology-aided biobehavioral approach to assess RRB and HRV in individuals with ASD.

The Effects of a Technology-Based Self-monitoring Intervention on On-Task, Disruptive, and Task-Completion Behaviors for Adolescents with Autism.

Individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) often present with difficulty in sustaining engagement, attention, and have disruptive behavior in classroom settings. Without appropriate intervention, these challenging behaviors often persist and negatively impact educational outcomes. Self-monitoring is a well-supported evidence-based practice for addressing challenging behaviors and improving pro-social behaviors for individuals with ASD. Self-monitoring procedures utilizing a handheld computer-based technology is an unobtrusive and innovative way of implementing the intervention. A withdrawal design was employed to assess the effectiveness of a technologically-delivered self-monitoring intervention (I-Connect) in improving on-task and task completion behaviors and decreasing disruptive behavior with four adolescents with ASD. Results demonstrated improvements in on-task and task completion behaviors across all four participants and disruptive behavior improved for two participants.

Cognitive ability and math computation developmental relations with math problem solving: An integrated, multigroup approach.

Individual differences in Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) cognitive abilities are related to individual differences in math problem solving. However, it is less clear whether cognitive abilities are associated with math problem solving directly or indirectly via math component skills and whether these relations differ across grade levels. We used multigroup structural equation models to examine direct and indirect CHC-based cognitive ability relations with math problem solving across six grade-level groups using the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition and the Kaufman Tests of Educational Achievement, Second Edition co-normed standardization sample data (N = 2,117). After testing factorial invariance of the cognitive constructs across grade levels, we assessed whether the main findings were similar across higher-order and bifactor models. In the higher-order model, the Crystallized Ability, Visual Processing, and Short-Term Memory constucts had direct and indirect relations with math problem solving, whereas the Learning Efficiency and Retrieval Fluency constructs had only indirect relations with math problem solving via math computation. The integrated cognitive ability and math achievement relations were generally consistent across the CHC models of intelligence. In the higher-order model, the g factor operated indirectly on math computation and math problem solving, whereas in the bifactor model, the first-order G factor had direct relations with math computation and math problem solving. In both models, g/G was the most consistent and largest cognitive predictor of math skills. Last, the relation of math computation with math problem solving increased as grade level increased. Theoretical implications for math development and considerations for school psychologists are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Cognitive ability influences on written expression: Evidence for developmental and sex-based differences in school-age children.

Some studies have demonstrated that the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) cognitive abilities influence writing; however, little research has investigated whether CHC cognitive abilities influence writing the same way for males and females across grades. We used multiple group structural equation models to investigate whether CHC cognitive ability influences on written expression differed between grades or sex using the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition and the Kaufman Tests of Educational Achievement, Second Edition co-normed standardization sample data (N=2117). After testing for consistent measurement of cognitive abilities across grades and sex, we tested whether the cognitive ability influences on written expression were moderated by grade level or sex. An important developmental shift was observed equally across sex groups: Learning Efficiency (Gl) influences decreased whereas Crystallized Ability (Gc) influences increased after fourth grade. Further, Short-Term Memory (Gsm) and Retrieval Fluency (Gr) influences on written expression depended on sex at grades 1-4, with larger Gr influences for females and larger Gsm influences for males. We internally replicated our main findings using two different cognitive explanatory models, adding further support for the developmental and sex-based differential cognitive ability influences on writing. Explanatory cognitive models of writing need to incorporate development, and possibly, sex to provide an expanded understanding of writing development and guard against potential generalizability issues characteristic of special population (i.e., male-female) studies.

Teacher-student relationship quality and academic achievement in elementary school: A longitudinal examination of gender differences.

Multiple group longitudinal cross-lagged panel models were implemented to understand the directional influences between teacher-student closeness and conflict and measured math and reading achievement across elementary grades and gender groups using the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development longitudinal sample (N=1133). Specifically, after testing multiple group longitudinal measurement invariance to ensure consistent measurement across genders and time, and tests of equivalence of the latent parameters, we were interested in whether longitudinal changes in teacher-rated closeness and conflict explained longitudinal changes in achievement, and vice versa, and whether those longitudinal influences varied by gender. Latent teacher-student closeness decreased for both genders over time (Cohen's d=-0.15 to -0.32), but latent conflict increased for males (Cohen's d=0.16). There was also increased heterogeneity in teacher-student relationship quality for males relative to females. Math and reading achievement had medium reciprocal effects (ß=0.12 to 0.23), and previous math achievement had small to medium effects on subsequent teacher-student closeness (ß=0.08 to 0.11) and conflict (ß=-0.07 to -0.09). Teacher-student conflict and closeness did not influence subsequent levels of math or reading achievement once previous levels were controlled. Further, these influences were consistent across gender groups despite latent differences in teacher-student closeness and conflict with teachers reporting closer relationships with female students and more conflictual relationships with male students.

Technology delivered self-monitoring application to promote successful inclusion of an elementary student with autism.

The ever-increasing prevalence of children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is paralleled in public educational settings, including general education classrooms. Challenges with social/behavioral functioning, including limited self-management and behavior inhibition, can lead to off-task and disruptive behaviors that interfere with acquisition of academic and social skills. Without effective and efficient interventions, opportunities to participate in inclusive settings will likely be reduced. Self-monitoring (SM) is an intervention with strong evidence for increasing prosocial behaviors and decreasing challenging behaviors for students with ASD in educational settings, although the cuing mechanisms (e.g., timers, stopwatch) and tracking materials (e.g., paper, pencil) can be cumbersome and obtrusive. I-Connect is an SM application that allows for customizable prompts, recording, and data monitoring. The purpose of this study was to evaluate, utilizing an ABAB design, the functional relationship between implementation of I-Connect SM intervention and increases in on-task behavior with concurrent decreases in disruptive behavior for an elementary student with ASD in a general education classroom. Results indicate an immediate increase in on-task behavior as well as a decrease in disruptive behaviors with each introduction of I-Connect. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.

Use of a Self-monitoring Application to Reduce Stereotypic Behavior in Adolescents with Autism: A Preliminary Investigation of I-Connect.

Many students with autism engage in a variety of complex stereotypic behaviors, impacting task completion and interfering with social opportunities. Self-monitoring is an intervention with empirical support for individuals with ASD to increase behavioral repertoires and decrease behaviors that are incompatible with successful outcomes. However, there is limited evidence for its utility for decreasing stereotypy, particularly for adolescents in school settings. This study evaluated the functional relationship between I-Connect, a technology-delivered self-monitoring program, and decreases in the level of stereotypy for two students with ASD in the school setting utilizing a withdrawal design with an embedded multiple baseline across participants. Both students demonstrated a marked decrease in stereotypy with the introduction of the self-monitoring application. Results and implications for practice and future research will be discussed.

Implementation of a self-monitoring application to improve on-task behavior: A high school pilot study.

Technological innovations offer promise for improving intervention implementation in secondary, inclusive classrooms. A withdrawal design was employed with two high school students in order to assess the effectiveness of a technologically-delivered, self-monitoring intervention in improving on-task behavior in a science classroom. Two students ages 14 and 15 with diagnoses of specific learning disability (student 1) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD: student 2) were selected by case manager referral due to difficulties with on-task behavior despite long-term administration of psychostimulant medication. After baseline data were collected, both students were trained in the use of a self-monitoring application (I-Connect) delivered via a handheld tablet. On-task prompts were delivered at five min intervals in an ABAB withdrawal design. The intervention resulted in positive, stable improvements in the primary dependent variable of on-task behavior for both students and less clear improvement in the generalization variable of disruptive behavior.