Unraveling the influences of sequence and position on yeast uORF activity using massively parallel reporter systems and machine learning.

Upstream open-reading frames (uORFs) are potent cis-acting regulators of mRNA translation and nonsense-mediated decay (NMD). While both AUG- and non-AUG initiated uORFs are ubiquitous in ribosome profiling studies, few uORFs have been experimentally tested. Consequently, the relative influences of sequence, structural, and positional features on uORF activity have not been determined. We quantified thousands of yeast uORFs using massively parallel reporter assays in wildtype and ∆upf1 yeast. While nearly all AUG uORFs were robust repressors, most non-AUG uORFs had relatively weak impacts on expression. Machine learning regression modeling revealed that both uORF sequences and locations within transcript leaders predict their effect on gene expression. Indeed, alternative transcription start sites highly influenced uORF activity. These results define the scope of natural uORF activity, identify features associated with translational repression and NMD, and suggest that the locations of uORFs in transcript leaders are nearly as predictive as uORF sequences.

False-positive IRESes from Hoxa9 and other genes resulting from errors in mammalian 5' UTR annotations.

Hyperconserved genomic sequences have great promise for understanding core biological processes. It has been recently proposed that scores of hyperconserved 5' untranslated regions (UTRs), also known as transcript leaders (hTLs), encode internal ribosome entry sites (IRESes) that drive cap-independent translation, in part, via interactions with ribosome expansion segments. However, the direct functional significance of such interactions has not yet been definitively demonstrated. We provide evidence that the putative IRESes previously reported in Hox gene hTLs are rarely included in transcript leaders. Instead, these regions function independently as transcriptional promoters. In addition, we find the proposed RNA structure of the putative Hoxa9 IRES is not conserved. Instead, sequences previously shown to be essential for putative IRES activity encode a hyperconserved transcription factor binding site (E-box) that contributes to its promoter activity and is bound by several transcription factors, including USF1 and USF2. Similar E-box sequences enhance the promoter activities of other putative Hoxa gene IRESes. Moreover, we provide evidence that the vast majority of hTLs with putative IRES activity overlap transcriptional promoters, enhancers, and 3' splice sites that are most likely responsible for their reported IRES activities. These results argue strongly against recently reported widespread IRES-like activities from hTLs and contradict proposed interactions between ribosomal expansion segment ES9S and putative IRESes. Furthermore, our work underscores the importance of accurate transcript annotations, controls in bicistronic reporter assays, and the power of synthesizing publicly available data from multiple sources.

Multiplexed Analysis of Human uORF Regulatory Functions During the ISR Using PoLib-Seq.

Protein synthesis is a highly regulated essential process. As such, it is subjected to substantial regulation in response to stress. One hallmark of the Integrated Stress Response (ISR) is the immediate shutdown of most translation through phosphorylation of the alpha subunit of translation initiation factor eIF2 and activation of eIF4E binding proteins. While these posttranslational modifications largely inhibit cap-dependent translation, many mRNA resist this inhibition by alternative translation mechanisms involving cis-regulatory sequences and structures in 5' transcript leaders, including upstream Open Reading Frames (uORFs), Internal Ribosome Entry Sites (IRESes), and Cap-Independent Translation Elements (CITEs). Studies of uORF and IRES activity are often performed on a gene-by-gene basis; however, high-throughput methods have recently emerged. Here, we describe a protocol for Polysome Library Sequencing (PoLib-Seq; Fig. 1), a multiplexed assay of reporter gene translation that can be used during the ISR. A designer library of reporter RNAs are transfected into tissue-culture cells, and their translation is assayed via sucrose gradient fractionation followed by high-throughput sequencing. As an example, we include PoLib-seq results simultaneously assaying translation of wildtype and uORF mutant human ATF4 reporter RNAs, recapitulating the known function of uORF1 in resisting translational inhibition during the ISR.

High-Throughput Quantitation of Yeast uORF Regulatory Impacts Using FACS-uORF.

Eukaryotic upstream Open Reading Frames (uORFs) are short translated regions found in many transcript leaders (Barbosa et al. PLoS Genet 9:e1003529, 2013; Zhang et al. Trends Biochem Sci 44:782-794, 2019). Modern transcript annotations and ribosome profiling studies have found thousands of AUG-initiated uORFs, and many more uORFs initiated by near-cognate codons (CUG, GUG, UUG, etc.). Their translation generally decreases the expression of the main encoded protein by preventing ribosomes from reaching the main ORF of each gene, and by inducing nonsense mediated decay (NMD) through premature termination. Under many cellular stresses, uORF containing transcripts are de-repressed due to decreased translation initiation (Young et al. J Biol Chem 291:16927-16935, 2016). Traditional experimental evaluation of uORFs involves comparing expression from matched uORF-containing and start-codon mutated transcript leader reporter plasmids. This tedious process has precluded analysis of large numbers of uORFs. We recently used FACS-uORF to simultaneously assay thousands of yeast uORFs in order to evaluate the impact of codon usage on their functions (Lin et al. Nucleic Acids Res 2:1-10, 2019). Here, we provide a step-by-step protocol for this assay.

Impacts of uORF codon identity and position on translation regulation.

Translation regulation plays an important role in eukaryotic gene expression. Upstream open reading frames (uORFs) are potent regulatory elements located in 5' mRNA transcript leaders. Translation of uORFs usually inhibit the translation of downstream main open reading frames, but some enhance expression. While a minority of uORFs encode conserved functional peptides, the coding regions of most uORFs are not conserved. Thus, the importance of uORF coding sequences on their regulatory functions remains largely unknown. We investigated the impact of an uORF coding region on gene regulation by assaying the functions of thousands of variants in the yeast YAP1 uORF. Varying uORF codons resulted in a wide range of functions, including repressing and enhancing expression of the downstream ORF. The presence of rare codons resulted in the most inhibitory YAP1 uORF variants. Inhibitory functions of such uORFs were abrogated by overexpression of complementary tRNA. Finally, regression analysis of our results indicated that both codon identity and position impact uORF function. Our results support a model in which a uORF coding sequence impacts its regulatory functions by altering the speed of uORF translation.

Conserved non-AUG uORFs revealed by a novel regression analysis of ribosome profiling data.

Upstream open reading frames (uORFs), located in transcript leaders (5' UTRs), are potent cis-acting regulators of translation and mRNA turnover. Recent genome-wide ribosome profiling studies suggest that thousands of uORFs initiate with non-AUG start codons. Although intriguing, these non-AUG uORF predictions have been made without statistical control or validation; thus, the importance of these elements remains to be demonstrated. To address this, we took a comparative genomics approach to study AUG and non-AUG uORFs. We mapped transcription leaders in multiple Saccharomyces yeast species and applied a novel machine learning algorithm (uORF-seqr) to ribosome profiling data to identify statistically significant uORFs. We found that AUG and non-AUG uORFs are both frequently found in Saccharomyces yeasts. Although most non-AUG uORFs are found in only one species, hundreds have either conserved sequence or position within Saccharomyces uORFs initiating with UUG are particularly common and are shared between species at rates similar to that of AUG uORFs. However, non-AUG uORFs are translated less efficiently than AUG-uORFs and are less subject to removal via alternative transcription initiation under normal growth conditions. These results suggest that a subset of non-AUG uORFs may play important roles in regulating gene expression.

Extensive cross-regulation of post-transcriptional regulatory networks in Drosophila.

In eukaryotic cells, RNAs exist as ribonucleoprotein particles (RNPs). Despite the importance of these complexes in many biological processes, including splicing, polyadenylation, stability, transportation, localization, and translation, their compositions are largely unknown. We affinity-purified 20 distinct RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) from cultured Drosophila melanogaster cells under native conditions and identified both the RNA and protein compositions of these RNP complexes. We identified "high occupancy target" (HOT) RNAs that interact with the majority of the RBPs we surveyed. HOT RNAs encode components of the nonsense-mediated decay and splicing machinery, as well as RNA-binding and translation initiation proteins. The RNP complexes contain proteins and mRNAs involved in RNA binding and post-transcriptional regulation. Genes with the capacity to produce hundreds of mRNA isoforms, ultracomplex genes, interact extensively with heterogeneous nuclear ribonuclear proteins (hnRNPs). Our data are consistent with a model in which subsets of RNPs include mRNA and protein products from the same gene, indicating the widespread existence of auto-regulatory RNPs. From the simultaneous acquisition and integrative analysis of protein and RNA constituents of RNPs, we identify extensive cross-regulatory and hierarchical interactions in post-transcriptional control.

Mod-seq: A High-Throughput Method for Probing RNA Secondary Structure.

It has become increasingly clear that large RNA molecules, especially long noncoding RNAs, function in almost all gene regulatory processes (Cech & Steitz, 2014). Many large RNAs appear to be structural scaffolds for assembly of important RNA/protein complexes. However, the structures of most large cellular RNA molecules are currently unknown (Hennelly & Sanbonmatsu, 2012). While chemical probing can reveal single-stranded regions of RNA, traditional approaches to identify sites of chemical modification are time consuming. Mod-seq is a high-throughput method used to map chemical modification sites on RNAs of any size, including complex mixtures of RNA. In this protocol, we describe preparation of Mod-seq high-throughput sequencing libraries from chemically modified RNA. We also describe a software package "Mod-seeker," which is a compilation of scripts written in Python, for the analysis of Mod-seq data. Mod-seeker returns statistically significant modification sites, which can then be used to aid in secondary structure prediction.

Diversity and dynamics of the Drosophila transcriptome.

Animal transcriptomes are dynamic, with each cell type, tissue and organ system expressing an ensemble of transcript isoforms that give rise to substantial diversity. Here we have identified new genes, transcripts and proteins using poly(A)+ RNA sequencing from Drosophila melanogaster in cultured cell lines, dissected organ systems and under environmental perturbations. We found that a small set of mostly neural-specific genes has the potential to encode thousands of transcripts each through extensive alternative promoter usage and RNA splicing. The magnitudes of splicing changes are larger between tissues than between developmental stages, and most sex-specific splicing is gonad-specific. Gonads express hundreds of previously unknown coding and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), some of which are antisense to protein-coding genes and produce short regulatory RNAs. Furthermore, previously identified pervasive intergenic transcription occurs primarily within newly identified introns. The fly transcriptome is substantially more complex than previously recognized, with this complexity arising from combinatorial usage of promoters, splice sites and polyadenylation sites.

Ribosome profiling reveals post-transcriptional buffering of divergent gene expression in yeast.

Understanding the patterns and causes of phenotypic divergence is a central goal in evolutionary biology. Much work has shown that mRNA abundance is highly variable between closely related species. However, the extent and mechanisms of post-transcriptional gene regulatory evolution are largely unknown. Here we used ribosome profiling to compare transcript abundance and translation efficiency in two closely related yeast species (S. cerevisiae and S. paradoxus). By comparing translation regulatory divergence to interspecies differences in mRNA sequence features, we show that differences in transcript leaders and codon bias substantially contribute to divergent translation. Globally, we find that translation regulatory divergence often buffers species differences in mRNA abundance, such that ribosome occupancy is more conserved than transcript abundance. We used allele-specific ribosome profiling in interspecies hybrids to compare the relative contributions of cis- and trans-regulatory divergence to species differences in mRNA abundance and translation efficiency. The mode of gene regulatory divergence differs for these processes, as trans-regulatory changes play a greater role in divergent mRNA abundance than in divergent translation efficiency. Strikingly, most genes with aberrant transcript abundance in F1 hybrids (either over- or underexpressed compared to both parent species) did not exhibit aberrant ribosome occupancy. Our results show that interspecies differences in translation contribute substantially to the evolution of gene expression. Compensatory differences in transcript abundance and translation efficiency may increase the robustness of gene regulation.

Macaque long-term nonprogressors resist superinfection with multiple CD8+ T cell escape variants of simian immunodeficiency virus.

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive individuals can be superinfected with different virus strains. Individuals who control an initial HIV infection are therefore still at risk for subsequent infection with divergent viruses, but the barriers to such superinfection remain unclear. Here we tested long-term nonprogressors' (LTNPs') susceptibility to superinfection using Indian rhesus macaques that express the major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) allele Mamu-B 17, which is associated with control of the pathogenic AIDS virus SIVmac239. The Mamu-B 17-restricted CD8(+) T cell repertoire is focused almost entirely on 5 epitopes. We engineered a series of SIVmac239 variants bearing mutations in 3, 4, or all 5 of these epitopes and used them to serially challenge 2 Mamu-B 17-positive LTNPs. None of the escape variants caused breakthrough replication in LTNPs, although they readily infected Mamu-B 17-negative naive macaques. In vitro competing coculture assays and examination of viral evolution in hosts lacking Mamu-B 17 suggested that the mutant viruses had negligible defects in replicative fitness. Both LTNPs maintained robust immune responses, including simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)-specific CD8(+) and CD4(+) T cells and neutralizing antibodies. Our results suggest that escape mutations in epitopes bound by "protective" MHC-I molecules may not be sufficient to establish superinfection in LTNPs.

Competing RNA secondary structures are required for mutually exclusive splicing of the Dscam exon 6 cluster.

Alternative splicing of eukaryotic pre-mRNAs is an important mechanism for generating proteome diversity and regulating gene expression. The Drosophila melanogaster Down Syndrome Cell Adhesion Molecule (Dscam) gene is an extreme example of mutually exclusive splicing. Dscam contains 95 alternatively spliced exons that potentially encode 38,016 distinct mRNA and protein isoforms. We previously identified two sets of conserved sequence elements, the docking site and selector sequences in the Dscam exon 6 cluster, which contains 48 mutually exclusive exons. These elements were proposed to engage in competing RNA secondary structures required for mutually exclusive splicing, though this model has not yet been experimentally tested. Here we describe a new system that allowed us to demonstrate that the docking site and selector sequences are indeed required for exon 6 mutually exclusive splicing and that the strength of these RNA structures determines the frequency of exon 6 inclusion. We also show that the function of the docking site has been conserved for ~500 million years of evolution. This work demonstrates that conserved intronic sequences play a functional role in mutually exclusive splicing of the Dscam exon 6 cluster.

Evolution of digit identity in the three-toed Italian skink Chalcides chalcides: a new case of digit identity frame shift.

Digit identity in the avian wing is a classical example of conflicting anatomical and embryological evidence regarding digit homology. Anatomical in conjunction with phylogenetic evidence supports the hypothesis that the three remaining digits in the bird wing are digits 1, 2, and 3. At the same time, various lines of embryological evidence support the notion that these digits develop in positions that normally produce digits 2, 3, and 4. In recent years, gene expression as well as experimental evidence was published that supports the hypothesis that this discrepancy arose from a digit identity shift in the evolution of the bird wing. A similar but less well-known controversy has been ongoing since the late 19th century regarding the identity of the digits of the three-toed Italian skink, Chalcides chalcides. Comparative anatomy identifies these digits as 1, 2, and 3, while embryological evidence suggests their derivation from embryological positions 2, 3, and 4. Here we re-examine this evidence and add gene expression data to determine the identity of the three digits of C. chalcides. The data confirm that the adult and the embryological evidence for digit identity are in conflict, and the expression of Hoxd11 suggests that digits 1, 2, and 3 develop in positions 2, 3, and 4. We conclude that in C. chalcides, and likely in its close relatives, a digit identity frame shift has occurred, similar to the one in avian evolution. This result suggests that changes in of digit identity might be a more frequent consequence of digit reduction than previously assumed.

Infection with "escaped" virus variants impairs control of simian immunodeficiency virus SIVmac239 replication in Mamu-B*08-positive macaques.

An understanding of the mechanism(s) by which some individuals spontaneously control human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/simian immunodeficiency virus replication may aid vaccine design. Approximately 50% of Indian rhesus macaques that express the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I allele Mamu-B*08 become elite controllers after infection with simian immunodeficiency virus SIVmac239. Mamu-B*08 has a binding motif that is very similar to that of HLA-B27, a human MHC class I allele associated with the elite control of HIV, suggesting that SIVmac239-infected Mamu-B*08-positive (Mamu-B*08+) animals may be a good model for the elite control of HIV. The association with MHC class I alleles implicates CD8+ T cells and/or natural killer cells in the control of viral replication. We therefore introduced point mutations into eight Mamu-B*08-restricted CD8+ T-cell epitopes to investigate the contribution of epitope-specific CD8+ T-cell responses to the development of the control of viral replication. Ten Mamu-B*08+ macaques were infected with this mutant virus, 8X-SIVmac239. We compared immune responses and viral loads of these animals to those of wild-type SIVmac239-infected Mamu-B*08+ macaques. The five most immunodominant Mamu-B*08-restricted CD8+ T-cell responses were barely detectable in 8X-SIVmac239-infected animals. By 48 weeks postinfection, 2 of 10 8X-SIVmac239-infected Mamu-B*08+ animals controlled viral replication to <20,000 viral RNA (vRNA) copy equivalents (eq)/ml plasma, while 10 of 15 wild-type-infected Mamu-B*08+ animals had viral loads of <20,000 vRNA copy eq/ml (P = 0.04). Our results suggest that these epitope-specific CD8+ T-cell responses may play a role in establishing the control of viral replication in Mamu-B*08+ macaques.

Novel translation products from simian immunodeficiency virus SIVmac239 Env-encoding mRNA contain both Rev and cryptic T-cell epitopes.

Understanding the correlates of immune protection against human immunodeficiency virus and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) will require defining the entire cellular immune response against the viruses. Here, we define two novel translation products from the SIV env mRNA that are targeted by the T-cell response in SIV-infected rhesus macaques. The shorter product is a subset of the larger product, which contains both the first exon of the Rev protein and a translated portion of the rev intron. Our data suggest that the translation of viral alternate reading frames may be an important source of T-cell epitopes, including epitopes normally derived from functional proteins.

Comprehensive immunological evaluation reveals surprisingly few differences between elite controller and progressor Mamu-B*17-positive simian immunodeficiency virus-infected rhesus macaques.

The association between particular major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) alleles and control of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) replication implies that certain CD8(+) T-lymphocyte (CD8-TL) responses are better able than others to control viral replication in vivo. However, possession of favorable alleles does not guarantee improved prognosis or viral control. In rhesus macaques, the MHC-I allele Mamu-B*17 is correlated with reduced viremia and is overrepresented in macaques that control SIVmac239, termed elite controllers (ECs). However, there is so far no mechanistic explanation for this phenomenon. Here we show that the chronic-phase Mamu-B*17-restricted repertoire is focused primarily against just five epitopes-VifHW8, EnvFW9, NefIW9, NefMW9, and env(ARF)cRW9-in both ECs and progressors. Interestingly, Mamu-B*17-restricted CD8-TL do not target epitopes in Gag. CD8-TL escape variation occurred in all targeted Mamu-B*17-restricted epitopes. However, recognition of escape variant peptides was commonly observed in both ECs and progressors. Wild-type sequences in the VifHW8 epitope tended to be conserved in ECs, but there was no evidence that this enhances viral control. In fact, no consistent differences were detected between ECs and progressors in any measured parameter. Our data suggest that the narrowly focused Mamu-B*17-restricted repertoire suppresses virus replication and drives viral evolution. It is, however, insufficient in the majority of individuals that express the "protective" Mamu-B*17 molecule. Most importantly, our data indicate that the important differences between Mamu-B*17-positive ECs and progressors are not readily discernible using standard assays to measure immune responses.

Patterns of CD8+ immunodominance may influence the ability of Mamu-B*08-positive macaques to naturally control simian immunodeficiency virus SIVmac239 replication.

Certain major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I alleles are strongly associated with control of human immunodeficiency virus and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV). CD8(+) T cells specific for epitopes restricted by these molecules may be particularly effective. Understanding how CD8(+) T cells contribute to control of viral replication should yield important insights for vaccine design. We have recently identified an Indian rhesus macaque MHC class I allele, Mamu-B*08, associated with elite control and low plasma viremia after infection with the pathogenic isolate SIVmac239. Here, we infected four Mamu-B*08-positive macaques with SIVmac239 to investigate why some of these macaques control viral replication. Three of the four macaques controlled SIVmac239 replication with plasma virus concentrations below 20,000 viral RNA copies/ml at 20 weeks postinfection; two of four macaques were elite controllers (ECs). Interestingly, two of the four macaques preserved their CD4(+) memory T lymphocytes during peak viremia, and all four recovered their CD4(+) memory T lymphocytes in the chronic phase of infection. Mamu-B*08-restricted CD8(+) T-cell responses dominated the acute phase and accounted for 23.3% to 59.6% of the total SIV-specific immune responses. Additionally, the ECs mounted strong and broad CD8(+) T-cell responses against several epitopes in Vif and Nef. Mamu-B*08-specific CD8(+) T cells accounted for the majority of mutations in the virus at 18 weeks postinfection. Interestingly, patterns of viral variation in Nef differed between the ECs and the other two macaques. Natural containment of AIDS virus replication in Mamu-B*08-positive macaques may, therefore, be related to a combination of immunodominance and viral escape from CD8(+) T-cell responses.

CD8+ T cells from SIV elite controller macaques recognize Mamu-B*08-bound epitopes and select for widespread viral variation.

BACKGROUND: It is generally accepted that CD8+ T cell responses play an important role in control of immunodeficiency virus replication. The association of HLA-B27 and -B57 with control of viremia supports this conclusion. However, specific correlates of viral control in individuals expressing these alleles have been difficult to define. We recently reported that transient in vivo CD8+ cell depletion in simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)-infected elite controller (EC) macaques resulted in a brief period of viral recrudescence. SIV replication was rapidly controlled with the reappearance of CD8+ cells, implicating that these cells actively suppress viral replication in ECs. METHODS AND FINDINGS: Here we show that three ECs in that study made at least seven robust CD8+ T cell responses directed against novel epitopes in Vif, Rev, and Nef restricted by the MHC class I molecule Mamu-B*08. Two of these Mamu-B*08-positive animals subsequently lost control of SIV replication. Their breakthrough virus harbored substitutions in multiple Mamu-B*08-restricted epitopes. Indeed, we found evidence for selection pressure mediated by Mamu-B*08-restricted CD8+ T cells in all of the newly identified epitopes in a cohort of chronically infected macaques. CONCLUSIONS: Together, our data suggest that Mamu-B*08-restricted CD8+ T cell responses effectively control replication of pathogenic SIV(mac)239. All seven regions encoding Mamu-B*08-restricted CD8+ T cell epitopes also exhibit amino acid replacements typically seen only in the presence of Mamu-B*08, suggesting that the variation we observe is indeed selected by CD8+ T cell responses. SIV(mac)239 infection of Indian rhesus macaques expressing Mamu-B*08 may therefore provide an animal model for understanding CD8+ T cell-mediated control of HIV replication in humans.

AIDS virus specific CD8+ T lymphocytes against an immunodominant cryptic epitope select for viral escape.

Cryptic major histocompatibility complex class I epitopes have been detected in several pathogens, but their importance in the immune response to AIDS viruses remains unknown. Here, we show that Mamu-B*17(+) simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)mac239-infected rhesus macaques that spontaneously controlled viral replication consistently made strong CD8(+) T lymphocyte (CD8-TL) responses against a cryptic epitope, RHLAFKCLW (cRW9). Importantly, cRW9-specific CD8-TL selected for viral variation in vivo and effectively suppressed SIV replication in vitro, suggesting that they might play a key role in the SIV-specific response. The discovery of an immunodominant CD8-TL response in elite controller macaques against a cryptic epitope suggests that the AIDS virus-specific cellular immune response is likely far more complex than is generally assumed.

Subdominant CD8+ T-cell responses are involved in durable control of AIDS virus replication.

"Elite controllers" are individuals that durably control human immunodeficiency virus or simian immunodeficiency virus replication without therapeutic intervention. The study of these rare individuals may facilitate the definition of a successful immune response to immunodeficiency viruses. Here we describe six Indian-origin rhesus macaques that have controlled replication of the pathogenic virus SIVmac239 for 1 to 5 years. To determine which lymphocyte populations were responsible for this control, we transiently depleted the animals' CD8+ cells in vivo. This treatment resulted in 100- to 10,000-fold increases in viremia. When the CD8+ cells returned, control was reestablished and the levels of small subsets of previously subdominant CD8+ T cells expanded up to 2,500-fold above pre-depletion levels. This wave of CD8+ T cells was accompanied by robust Gag-specific CD4 responses. In contrast, CD8+ NK cell frequencies changed no more than threefold. Together, our data suggest that CD8+ T cells targeting a small number of epitopes, along with broad CD4+ T-cell responses, can successfully control the replication of the AIDS virus. It is likely that subdominant CD8+ T-cell populations play a key role in maintaining this control.