Peri-Traumatic Dissociation and Tonic Immobility as Severity Predictors of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder After Rape.

Some individuals show abnormal reactions to extreme fear and life-threatening situations, including tonic immobility (TI) and peri-traumatic dissociation (PTD). We aimed to investigate the association of TI and PTD with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in women who experienced sexual violence and the risk factors for PTD occurrence. We compared PTSD severity in 86 young adult women with PTSD after a sexual violence exposure grouped according to the presence of PTD and TI. In addition, we investigated whether PTD is associated with depression and anxiety symptoms and assessed potential risk factors for PTD reaction. We found a significant positive correlation between PTSD severity and PTD occurrence (R2 = .132; p = .001). PTD was also positively correlated with all clusters of PTSD symptoms except the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale avoidance cluster (p = .058). PTD was strongly correlated with anxiety (R2 = .619; p < .001) and depressive symptoms (R2 = .547; p < .001). Multiple logistic regression showed that history of physical abuse (odds ratio [OR]: 1.386; p = .011) and sexual abuse (OR: 1.947; p = .004) during childhood were associated with PTD occurrence. Other risk factors for PTD were having less years of study (OR: 0.216; p = .016) and lower income (OR: 7.403; p = .028). TI measures were available for a subsample of 29 women. We found no association between TI and PTSD severity. PTD, but not TI, is significantly associated with more severe PTSD, depressive, and anxiety symptoms. Less-educated women with a history of childhood abuse and a lower income are at risk of PTD occurrence during a sexual violence episode.

The positive impact of an intervention for maternal depression on child emotional and behavioral symptoms in a low-resource setting

Objectives: Children of depressed mothers are at risk of developing mental health problems. We sought to determine whether treatment for maternal depression by community-based health workers would decrease behavioral/emotional symptoms in their children. Interventions for maternal depressive symptoms in a low/middle-income country can have a high global impact. Methods: Community-based health workers were trained to deliver a psychosocial intervention for mothers with depression in a primary care setting. A total of 49 mothers and 60 children were assessed pre-intervention, post-intervention, and at 6 months follow-up. Child behavioral/emotional symptoms were evaluated according to type of change in maternal depressive symptoms: response or remission. Results: An overall decrease in maternal depressive symptoms from baseline to post-intervention and 6 months follow-up were found. Response or remission was associated with better outcomes in child behavioral/emotional symptoms at 6 months follow-up (p = 0.0247, Cohen's d: 0.76; p = 0.0224, Cohen's f: 0.44) but not at post-intervention (p = 0.1636, Cohen's d: 0.48; p = 0.0720, Cohen's f: 0.33). Conclusions: Improvement in maternal depression was related to decreased behavioral/emotional symptoms in their children. Our results suggest that providing interventions for maternal depression in primary care is a viable strategy to prevent behavioral/emotional symptoms in the next generation. Clinical Trial registration: Brazilian Clinical Trials, number RBR-5qhmb5.

Interpersonal psychotherapy versus sertraline for women with posttraumatic stress disorder following recent sexual assault: a randomized clinical trial.

Background: Sexual assault often triggers posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a potentially chronic severe mental disorder. Most guidelines recommend selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and trauma-focused psychotherapies as treatment options. Interpersonal Psychotherapy (IPT), adapted for PTSD (IPT-PTSD), focuses on interpersonal consequences of trauma rather than confronting the trauma itself. Studies have found IPT-PTSD efficaciously reduced PTSD symptoms with limited attrition. No efficacy trials have compared IPT-PTSD and SSRI. We hypothesized IPT would reduce PTSD, anxiety, and depressive symptoms more than sertraline among women with PTSD following a recent sexual assault. Objectives: To compare the efficacy of IPT-PTSD to SSRI sertraline in a 14-week randomized clinical trial for women with PTSD following a recent sexual assault. Methods: Seventy-four women with PTSD who had suffered sexual assault in the last six months were randomly assigned to 14 weeks of IPT-PTSD (n = 39) or sertraline (n = 35). Instruments assessed PTSD, anxiety, and depressive symptoms. This randomized clinical trial was conducted in São Paulo, Brazil, using the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale-5 (CAPS-5) as the primary outcome measure. Results: Both treatments significantly reduced PTSD, anxiety, and depressive symptoms, without between-group outcome differences. CAPS-5 mean decreased from 42.5 (SD = 9.4) to 27.1 (SD = 15.9) with sertraline and from 42.6 (SD = 9.1) to 29.1 (SD = 15.5) with IPT-PTSD. Attrition was high in both arms (p = .40). Conclusions: This trial showed within-group improvements without differences between IPT-PTSD and sertraline treatment of PTSD. Our findings suggest that non-exposure-based psychotherapies may benefit patients with PTSD, although we did not directly compare these treatments to an exposure therapy. Brazilian Clinical Trials Registry RBR-3z474z.

Antecedentes: La agresión sexual con frecuencia gatilla un trastorno de estrés postraumático (TEPT), un trastorno mental severo potencialmente crónico. La mayoría de las guías clínicas recomiendan los inhibidores selectivos de la receptación de serotonina (ISRSs) y psicoterapias focalizadas en trauma como opciones de tratamiento. La Psicoterapia Interpersonal (PIP), adaptada para TEPT (PIP-TEPT), se focaliza en las consecuencias interpersonales del trauma en lugar de confrontar el trauma en sí. Los estudios han encontrado que la PIP-TEPT eficazmente redujo los síntomas de TEPT con una deserción limitada. Ningún ensayo de eficacia ha comparado PIP-TEPT e ISRS. Hipotetizamos que la PIP-TEPT puede reducir los síntomas de TEPT, ansiedad y depresión más que la sertralina entre las mujeres con TEPT después de una agresión sexual reciente.Objetivos: Comparar la eficacia de la PIP-TEPT con sertralina, un ISRS en un ensayo clínico aleatorizado de 14 semanas para mujeres con TEPT después de una agresión sexual reciente.Métodos: Setenta y cuatro mujeres con TEPT que habían sufrido de una agresión sexual en los últimos seis meses fueron asignadas aleatoriamente a 14 semanas de PIP-TEPT (n = 39) o sertralina (n = 35). Los instrumentos evaluaron síntomas de TEPT, ansiedad y depresión. Este ensayo clínico aleatorizado se realizó en San Pablo, Brasil, utilizando la Escala de TEPT administrada por el clínico (CAPS-5, por sus siglas en inglés) como medida de resultado primaria.Resultados: Ambos tratamientos redujeron significativamente los síntomas de TEPT, ansiedad y depresión, sin diferencias de resultados entre los grupos. La media del CAPS-5 se redujo de 42.5 (DE = 9.4) a 27.1 (DE = 15.9) con sertralina y de 42.6 (DE = 9.1) a 29.1 (DE = 15.5) con la PIP-TEPT. La deserción fue alta en ambos tratamientos (p = .40).Conclusiones: Este ensayo mostro mejoría entre grupos sin diferencias entre la PIP-TEPT y sertralina en el tratamiento del TEPT. Nuestros hallazgos sugieren que las psicoterapias no basadas en la exposición pueden beneficiar a los pacientes con TEPT, aunque no comparamos directamente estos tratamientos con una terapia de exposición.Registro Brasileño de Ensayos Clínicos RBR-3z474z.

The positive impact of maternal depression intervention on children's emotional and behavioral symptoms in a low-resource setting.

OBJECTIVE: Children of depressed mothers are at risk of developing mental health problems. We sought to determine whether treatment for maternal depression delivered by community health workers (CHW) would decrease behavioral/emotional symptoms in their child. An intervention treating maternal depressive symptoms in a low-middle-income country can have a high global impact. METHODS: CHW were trained to deliver a psychosocial intervention for mothers with depression in a primary care setting. 49 mothers and 60 children were assessed pre-intervention, post-intervention, and at a 6-months follow-up. Child behavioral/emotional symptoms were evaluated by type of change in maternal depressive symptoms: remission and response. RESULTS: An overall decrease in maternal depressive symptoms from baseline to post-intervention and 6-month follow-up were found. Remission and response of maternal depression was associated with better outcomes related to child´s behavioral/emotional symptoms at the 6-month follow-up (p = 0.0247, Cohen's d: 0.76; p = 0.0224, Cohen's f: 0.44) but not at post-intervention (p = 0.1636, Cohen's d: 0.48; p = 0.0720, Cohen's f: 0.33). CONCLUSION: Maternal depression improvement was related to their child's decreased behavioral/emotional symptoms. Our results suggest that interventions addressing maternal depression in primary care is a viable strategy to prevent behavioral/emotional symptoms in the next generation.

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression severity in sexually assaulted women: hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis alterations.

BACKGROUND: Sexual assault is implicated in several adverse psychological and physical health outcomes, including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression. Neurobiological research has shown variations related to the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, immune alterations, metabolic function, and brain circuitry. Although these mechanisms have been extensively studied, the results have demonstrated different outcomes in PTSD. METHODS: We compared the plasma adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) and salivary cortisol levels of fifty-eight women with PTSD developed after sexual assault to those of forty-four female controls with no history of trauma. We also evaluated the psychiatric diagnosis and symptom severity of PTSD and depression. The participants' clinical conditions were associated with their hormonal levels to assess whether symptom severity was related to hormonal imbalance. RESULTS: A large percentage of sexually assaulted women had PTSD and comorbid depression. The ACTH levels were higher in the PTSD group than the control group and increased as PTSD severity increased, considering depressive symptoms, measured by the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) (p < 0.0001), as well as PTSD symptoms, measured by subscale D of the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS-5) (p = 0.045) and the CAPS-5 total scale (p = 0.026). Cortisol levels measured at 10 pm were higher for the PTSD group than the control group (p = 0.045, p = 0.037, respectively), and the cortisol awakening response showed elevated cortisol levels for the PTSD group. CONCLUSIONS: These results show a correlation between symptom severity and HPA axis imbalance in patients with PTSD. Elevated ACTH and an elevated cortisol response in patients with comorbid depressive symptoms were the opposite of the expected response for patients with PTSD only. This association leads to the hypothesis that the neurobiological alterations of PTSD are related to the type of symptoms presented and their severity. These manifestations likely influence the disease course, prognosis and response to treatment. These outcomes highlight the need to discuss particular neurobiological alterations in patients with PTSD developed after sexual assault, mainly those with severe depressive symptoms.

Attrition in Interpersonal Psychotherapy Among Women With Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Following Sexual Assault.

BACKGROUND: An estimated 16.9% of adult Brazilian women experience sexual assault in their lifetime. Almost half of women who suffer such trauma develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Markowitz et al. (2015) found that an affect-focused non-exposure therapy, Interpersonal Psychotherapy (IPT), adapted to treat PTSD (IPT-PTSD) had similar efficacy to and lower dropout rates than Prolonged Exposure (PE), the "gold standard," most studied exposure therapy for PTSD. OBJECTIVE: To assess attrition rates in IPT of sexually assaulted women recently diagnosed with PTSD. METHODS: The current study derives from a two-arm, randomized controlled clinical trial of sexually assaulted women with PTSD who received 14 weeks of standardized treatment with either IPT-PTSD or sertraline. Sample: The 32 patients in the IPT treatment arm were analyzed. RESULTS: Overall attrition was 29%. One patient was withdrawn because of suicidal risk; four dropped out pre-treatment, and five dropped out during IPT-PTSD. If the excluded patient is considered a dropout, the rate increases to 31%. DISCUSSION: This is the first formal study of IPT for PTSD specifically due to sexual assault. IPT attrition approximated dropout rates in PE studies, which are often around 30%, and to the sertraline group in our study (34.5%). Further research should compare IPT and PE among sexually assaulted women to clarify our hypothesis that IPT could be an attractive alternative approach for this patient group.

Use of mental health services by community-resident adults with DSM-IV anxiety and mood disorders in a violence-prone area: São Paulo, Brazil.

BACKGROUND: While under-use of mental health services by adults with anxiety and/or depression is well established, use in a violence-prone area, and as a function of diagnosis and personality characteristics such resilience, is little known. We examine the sociodemographic and personality characteristics (specifically resilience), associated with use of mental health services in a violence-prone city by those with anxiety, depression, and their comorbidity. METHODS: The structured Composite International Diagnostic Interview was used to identify 12-month DSM-IV- and ICD-10-defined anxiety and depression in a cross-sectional, representative, community-resident sample age 15-75y (N = 2536) in São Paulo, Brazil, and their use of mental health services. Resilience was determined by the Wagnild and Young scale. Analyses, using weighted, design-corrected statistical tests, included frequency measures and multivariable logistic regression. RESULTS: Mental health services were used by 10% with only anxiety, 22% with only depression, and 34% with comorbidity, with odds of use in controlled analyses doubling from anxiety to depression to comorbidity. Use was significantly higher among those who were white, older (age >30 years, with substantial social support, low resilience, living in low homicide rate areas; use was not affected by experience of traumatic events. Psychiatrists, general practitioners, and psychologists were the primary providers. LIMITATIONS: Cross-sectional design CONCLUSIONS: Contrary to expectation, use was greater among residents of lower homicide areas, and was not associated with personal traumatic experience. This may reflect increased immunity to violence in higher homicidal rate areas, lower resilience, and poorer access to services. Increased access to mental health services is needed.

Revictimization as a high-risk factor for development of posttraumatic stress disorder: a systematic review of the literature

Objective: Much research has been published on the role of sexual revictimization in the emergence of mental disorders in adulthood, but findings have sometimes been contradictory. The present systematic review sought to assess the state of the evidence on revictimization as a potential factor for the emergence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Methods: Electronic searches were conducted in five databases (MEDLINE/PubMed, Cochrane Library, Campbell Library, PsycINFO, and LILACS), using the terms PTSD, posttraumatic stress disorder, child abuse, and rape. Results: We identified nine articles that established a connection among childhood sexual abuse (CSA), sexual revictimization in adulthood, and development of PTSD. Eight of the nine papers included were classified as having strong methodological quality (grade VI). One was classified as IV, with an average quality-of-evidence rating. The mean methodological quality score of the articles was 5.5, and the quality of evidence was deemed strong. Conclusion: In the included studies, PTSD symptoms were most prevalent in the CSA + adult sexual assault groups, providing further evidence for the revictimization hypothesis.

Revictimization as a high-risk factor for development of posttraumatic stress disorder: a systematic review of the literature.

OBJECTIVE: Much research has been published on the role of sexual revictimization in the emergence of mental disorders in adulthood, but findings have sometimes been contradictory. The present systematic review sought to assess the state of the evidence on revictimization as a potential factor for the emergence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). METHODS: Electronic searches were conducted in five databases (MEDLINE/PubMed, Cochrane Library, Campbell Library, PsycINFO, and LILACS), using the terms PTSD, posttraumatic stress disorder, child abuse, and rape. RESULTS: We identified nine articles that established a connection among childhood sexual abuse (CSA), sexual revictimization in adulthood, and development of PTSD. Eight of the nine papers included were classified as having strong methodological quality (grade VI). One was classified as IV, with an average quality-of-evidence rating. The mean methodological quality score of the articles was 5.5, and the quality of evidence was deemed strong. CONCLUSION: In the included studies, PTSD symptoms were most prevalent in the CSA + adult sexual assault groups, providing further evidence for the revictimization hypothesis.

Childhood Sexual Abuse and Indicators of Immune Activity: A Systematic Review.

Background: Childhood sexual abuse (CSA) is a prevalent subtype of early life stress associated with changes in immunological and neuroendocrine systems leading to inflammatory responses of the organism and increasing several inflammatory and immune markers. We aimed to conduct a systematic review concerning the association between CSA and indicators of immune activity. Methods: We conducted a search for articles in PubMed, Scopus, PsycINFO, and Web of Science, using the key words: ("Child sexual abuse" OR "childhood maltreatment" OR "sexual violence" OR "posttraumatic stress disorder" OR "rape") AND ("cytokines" OR "inflammatory markers" OR "interleukin" OR "tumor necrosis factor" OR "C-reactive protein"). PRISMA guidelines were used in order to improve the quality of this research, and MeSH terms were used in PubMed. Results: A total of 3,583 studies were found and, after application of the exclusion criteria, 17 studies were included in this review. Most studies reported an increase of inflammatory activity associated with the presence of early abuse. IL-6, TNF- α, and C-reactive protein were the most frequently analyzed markers and some studies showed higher levels in individuals that suffered CSA compared with controls, although the results were heterogeneous, as was the assessment of CSA, repeated trauma, and time of occurrence. It was not possible to perform a meta-analysis because the results were diversified. Conclusion: CSA is associated with changes in inflammatory markers levels. Improving the assessment of subtypes of trauma is important to further understand the complex correlations of CSA and its biological consequences such as psychiatric and physical illness in later life.

12-month prevalence and concomitants of DSM-IV depression and anxiety disorders in two violence-prone cities in Brazil.

BACKGROUND: Estimating 12-month prevalence of depression, anxiety, and comorbid anxiety/depression in noninstitutionalized adults (age 15-75) in two violence-prone cities. METHODS: The Composite International Diagnostic Interview v2.1 (Portuguese), administered in population-representative surveys (age 15-75) in São Paulo (N = 2536) and Rio de Janeiro (N = 1208), yielded 12-month prevalence of violent events experienced, and DSM-IV diagnoses of depression and anxiety, which were classified into mutually exclusive groups: 1) no anxiety/depression; 2) anxiety only; 3) depression only; 4) comorbid anxiety/depression. Weighted analyses estimated 12-month prevalence, multinomial logistic regression compared the demographic characteristics of the diagnosis groups, and association with experienced violence. RESULTS: Twelve-month prevalence of anxiety alone, depression alone, and comorbid anxiety/depression was 12.7% (of whom 24.9% were also depressed), 4.9% (of whom 46.2% had anxiety), and 4.2% respectively for São Paulo; and 12.1% (18.2% of whom were depressed), 4.6% (37.0% with anxiety), and 2.7% respectively for Rio de Janeiro. All conditions were approximately twice as prevalent in women than in men in both cities. In São Paulo, comorbidity was associated with age under 60, depression alone was more prevalent among 30-59 year olds, but in 23-29 year-olds in Rio de Janeiro. Exposure to violence increased the odds of anxiety, depression, and their comorbidity. With rare exception, marital status, education, and race/ethnicity were not associated with anxiety, depression, or their comorbidity. LIMITATIONS: Cross-sectional design. CONCLUSIONS: Prevalence rates for all conditions were high, and particularly associated with exposure to violence. Means to ameliorate violence, and its mental health effects, particularly for women, are needed.

Correlations between caregiver psychiatric symptoms and offspring psychopathology in a low-resource setting

Objective: Associations between parental/caregiver depression and adverse child outcomes are well established and have been described through one or more mechanisms: child psychopathology following exposure to a depressed caregiver, child psychopathology exacerbating a caregiver's depression, and caregiver and offspring depression sharing the same etiology. Data from low and middle-income countries is scarce. We examined correlations between common symptoms of mental disorders in caregivers and their offspring's psychopathology in a Brazilian sample. Methods: In this cross-sectional study, adult caregivers were screened for depression during routine home visits by community health workers as part of the Brazilian Family Health Strategy. Caregivers with suspected depression were assessed using the Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale and the Self-Reporting Questionnaire (SRQ-20). Children's symptoms were evaluated using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Results: The sample included 68 primary caregivers and 110 children aged 6 to 15 years. Higher caregiver scores on the SRQ-20 correlated significantly with psychiatric symptoms in offspring. Conclusion: These results substantiate our hypothesis that child psychopathology correlates with caregivers' psychiatric symptoms. This paper adds to the growing literature on community mental health assessment and can help guide future strategies for reducing the burden of common mental disorders in caregivers and children alike in low and middle-income countries.

Risk of Bias in Randomized Clinical Trials on Psychological Therapies for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Adults.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the factorial validity and internal consistency of a measurement model underlying risk of bias as endorsed by Cochrane for use in systematic reviews; more specifically, how the risk of bias tool behaves in the context of studies on psychological therapies used for treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder in adults. METHODS: We applied confirmatory factor analysis to a systematic review containing 70 clinical trials entitled "Psychological Therapies for Chronic Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Adults" under a Bayesian estimator. Seven observed categorical risk of bias items (answered categorically as low, unclear, or high risk of bias) were collected from the systematic review. RESULTS: A unidimensional model for the Cochrane risk of bias tool items returned poor fit indices and low factor loadings, indicating questionable validity and internal consistency. CONCLUSION: Although the present evidence is restricted to psychological interventions for post-traumatic stress disorder, it demonstrates that the way risk of bias has been measured in this context may not be adequate. More broadly, the results suggest the importance of testing the risk of bias tool, and the possibility of rethinking the methods used to assess risk of bias in systematic reviews and meta-analyses.

Correlations between caregiver psychiatric symptoms and offspring psychopathology in a low-resource setting.

OBJECTIVE: Associations between parental/caregiver depression and adverse child outcomes are well established and have been described through one or more mechanisms: child psychopathology following exposure to a depressed caregiver, child psychopathology exacerbating a caregiver's depression, and caregiver and offspring depression sharing the same etiology. Data from low and middle-income countries is scarce. We examined correlations between common symptoms of mental disorders in caregivers and their offspring's psychopathology in a Brazilian sample. METHODS: In this cross-sectional study, adult caregivers were screened for depression during routine home visits by community health workers as part of the Brazilian Family Health Strategy. Caregivers with suspected depression were assessed using the Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale and the Self-Reporting Questionnaire (SRQ-20). Children's symptoms were evaluated using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). RESULTS: The sample included 68 primary caregivers and 110 children aged 6 to 15 years. Higher caregiver scores on the SRQ-20 correlated significantly with psychiatric symptoms in offspring. CONCLUSION: These results substantiate our hypothesis that child psychopathology correlates with caregivers' psychiatric symptoms. This paper adds to the growing literature on community mental health assessment and can help guide future strategies for reducing the burden of common mental disorders in caregivers and children alike in low and middle-income countries.

Prevalence and Correlates of Elder Abuse in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the prevalence of elder abuse and to investigate potential sociodemographic, health behavior, and medical correlates. DESIGN: Cross-sectional data were collected in face-to-face assessments. SETTING: São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. PARTICIPANTS: Individuals aged 60 to 75. MEASUREMENTS: Information on elder abuse was obtained using the Brazil-adapted, nine-item Hwalek-Sengstock Elder Abuse Screening Test. Sampling design-adjusted descriptive statistics and logistic regression were used in analyses. RESULTS: The overall prevalence of abuse was 14.4% (n = 46/259, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 9.82-20.61) in São Paulo and 13.3% (n = 27/197, 95% CI = 8.76-19.74) in Rio de Janeiro. Unadjusted analyses indicated that poor education, low physical activity, unemployment, heart disease, and psychiatric problems were associated with abuse, but in adjusted analyses, self-reported elder abuse was significantly associated only with psychiatric problems (São Paulo: OR = 4.48, 95% CI = 1.75-11.45; Rio de Janeiro: OR = 21.61, 95% CI = 6.39-73.14). CONCLUSION: Elder abuse is prevalent in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, but whether concomitants of abuse are cause, effect, or both is unclear because this was a cross-sectional study. These findings highlight the importance of the problem, as well as the need to develop measures to increase awareness, facilitate prevention, and fight against abuse of elderly adults.

Single-nucleotide polymorphisms in genes related to the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis as risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder.

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a common psychiatric disorder. The etiology of PTSD is multifactorial, depending on many environmental and genetic risk factors, and the exposure to life or physical integrity-threatening events. Several studies have shown significant correlations of many neurobiological findings with PTSD. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction is strongly correlated with this disorder. One hypothesis is that HPA axis dysfunction may precede the traumatic event, suggesting that genes expressed in the HPA axis may be involved in the development of PTSD. This article reviews molecular genetic studies related to PTSD collected through a literature search performed in PubMed, MEDLINE, ScienceDirect, and Scientific Electronic Library Online (SciELO). The results of these studies suggest that several polymorphisms in the HPA axis genes, including FKBP5, NR3C1, CRHR1, and CRHR2, may be risk factors for PTSD development or may be associated with the severity of PTSD symptoms.