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AI tools intend to transform mental healthcare by providing remote estimates of depression risk using behavioral data collected by sensors embedded in smartphones. While these tools accurately predict elevated symptoms in small, homogenous populations, recent studies show that these tools are less accurate in larger, more diverse populations. In this work, we show that accuracy is reduced because sensed-behaviors are unreliable predictors of depression across individuals; specifically the sensed-behaviors that predict depression risk are inconsistent across demographic and socioeconomic subgroups. We first identified subgroups where a developed AI tool underperformed by measuring algorithmic bias, where subgroups with depression were incorrectly predicted to be at lower risk than healthier subgroups. We then found inconsistencies between sensed-behaviors predictive of depression across these subgroups. Our findings suggest that researchers developing AI tools predicting mental health from behavior should think critically about the generalizability of these tools, and consider tailored solutions for targeted populations.
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Mood deterioration in response to exercise cessation is well-documented, but moderators of this effect remain unknown. This study tested the hypothesis that physically active individuals with higher levels of cognitive vulnerability (i.e., tendencies towards negative thought content and processes in response to stress or negative mood states) are at greater risk for increased anxiety and depressive symptoms when undergoing exercise cessation. Community adults meeting recommended physical activity guidelines (N=36) participated in a 4-week prospective, longitudinal study with 2 weeks each of maintained exercise and exercise cessation. Cognitive vulnerability measures included dysfunctional attitudes, brooding rumination, and cognitive reactivity (i.e., change in dysfunctional attitudes over a dysphoric mood induction). Anxiety and depression symptoms increased during exercise cessation. Brooding emerged as a risk factor for increases in Tension scores on the Profile of Mood States-Brief during exercise cessation. Future studies should explore brooding as a mediator (i.e., potential mechanism) of exercise-induced mood deterioration.
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Digital mental health (DMH) interventions, such as text-message-based lessons and activities, offer immense potential for accessible mental health support. While these interventions can be effective, real-world experimental testing can further enhance their design and impact. Adaptive experimentation, utilizing algorithms like Thompson Sampling for (contextual) multi-armed bandit (MAB) problems, can lead to continuous improvement and personalization. However, it remains unclear when these algorithms can simultaneously increase user experience rewards and facilitate appropriate data collection for social-behavioral scientists to analyze with sufficient statistical confidence. Although a growing body of research addresses the practical and statistical aspects of MAB and other adaptive algorithms, further exploration is needed to assess their impact across diverse real-world contexts. This paper presents a software system developed over two years that allows text-messaging intervention components to be adapted using bandit and other algorithms while collecting data for side-by-side comparison with traditional uniform random non-adaptive experiments. We evaluate the system by deploying a text-message-based DMH intervention to 1100 users, recruited through a large mental health non-profit organization, and share the path forward for deploying this system at scale. This system not only enables applications in mental health but could also serve as a model testbed for adaptive experimentation algorithms in other domains.
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AI tools intend to transform mental healthcare by providing remote estimates of depression risk using behavioral data collected by sensors embedded in smartphones. While these tools accurately predict elevated depression symptoms in small, homogenous populations, recent studies show that these tools are less accurate in larger, more diverse populations. In this work, we show that accuracy is reduced because sensed-behaviors are unreliable predictors of depression across individuals: sensed-behaviors that predict depression risk are inconsistent across demographic and socioeconomic subgroups. We first identified subgroups where a developed AI tool underperformed by measuring algorithmic bias, where subgroups with depression were incorrectly predicted to be at lower risk than healthier subgroups. We then found inconsistencies between sensed-behaviors predictive of depression across these subgroups. Our findings suggest that researchers developing AI tools predicting mental health from sensed-behaviors should think critically about the generalizability of these tools, and consider tailored solutions for targeted populations.
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While studies show links between smartphone data and affective symptoms, we lack clarity on the temporal scale, specificity (e.g., to depression vs. anxiety), and person-specific (vs. group-level) nature of these associations. We conducted a large-scale (n = 1013) smartphone-based passive sensing study to identify within- and between-person digital markers of depression and anxiety symptoms over time. Participants (74.6% female; M age = 40.9) downloaded the LifeSense app, which facilitated continuous passive data collection (e.g., GPS, app and device use, communication) across 16 weeks. Hierarchical linear regression models tested the within- and between-person associations of 2-week windows of passively sensed data with depression (PHQ-8) or generalized anxiety (GAD-7). We used a shifting window to understand the time scale at which sensed features relate to mental health symptoms, predicting symptoms 2 weeks in the future (distal prediction), 1 week in the future (medial prediction), and 0 weeks in the future (proximal prediction). Spending more time at home relative to one's average was an early signal of PHQ-8 severity (distal ß = 0.219, p = 0.012) and continued to relate to PHQ-8 at medial (ß = 0.198, p = 0.022) and proximal (ß = 0.183, p = 0.045) windows. In contrast, circadian movement was proximally related to (ß = -0.131, p = 0.035) but did not predict (distal ß = 0.034, p = 0.577; medial ß = -0.089, p = 0.138) PHQ-8. Distinct communication features (i.e., call/text or app-based messaging) related to PHQ-8 and GAD-7. Findings have implications for identifying novel treatment targets, personalizing digital mental health interventions, and enhancing traditional patient-provider interactions. Certain features (e.g., circadian movement) may represent correlates but not true prospective indicators of affective symptoms. Conversely, other features like home duration may be such early signals of intra-individual symptom change, indicating the potential utility of prophylactic intervention (e.g., behavioral activation) in response to person-specific increases in these signals.
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BACKGROUND: Digital mental health interventions (DMHIs) offer potential solutions for addressing mental health care gaps, but often suffer from low engagement. Text messaging is one promising medium for increasing access and sustaining user engagement with DMHIs. This paper examines the Small Steps SMS program, an 8-week, automated, adaptive text message-based intervention for depression and anxiety. METHODS: We conducted an 8-week longitudinal usability test of the Small Steps SMS program, recruiting 20 participants who met criteria for major depressive disorder and/or generalized anxiety disorder. Participants used the automated intervention for 8 weeks and completed symptom severity and usability self-report surveys after 4 and 8 weeks of intervention use. Participants also completed individual interviews to provide feedback on the intervention. RESULTS: Participants responded to automated messages on 70 % of study days and with 85 % of participants sending responses to messages in the 8th week of use. Usability surpassed established cutoffs for software that is considered acceptable. Depression symptom severity decreased significantly over the usability test, but reductions in anxiety symptoms were not significant. Participants noted key areas for improvement including addressing message volume, aligning message scheduling to individuals' availability, and increasing the customizability of content. LIMITATIONS: This study does not contain a control group. CONCLUSIONS: An 8-week automated interactive text messaging intervention, Small Steps SMS, demonstrates promise with regard to being a feasible, usable, and engaging method to deliver daily mental health support to individuals with symptoms of anxiety and depression.
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Trastorno Depresivo Mayor , Automanejo , Envío de Mensajes de Texto , Humanos , Depresión/diagnóstico , Depresión/terapia , Trastorno Depresivo Mayor/diagnóstico , Trastorno Depresivo Mayor/terapia , Ansiedad/terapiaRESUMEN
As digital mental health interventions (DMHIs) proliferate, there is a growing need to understand the complexities of moving these tools from concept and design to service-ready products. We highlight five case studies from a center that specializes in the design and evaluation of digital mental health interventions to illustrate pragmatic approaches to the development of digital mental health interventions, and to make transparent some of the key decision points researchers encounter along the design-to-product pipeline. Case studies cover different key points in the design process and focus on partnership building, understanding the problem or opportunity, prototyping the product or service, and testing the product or service. We illustrate lessons learned and offer a series of questions researchers can use to navigate key decision points in the digital mental health intervention (DMHI) development process.
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Background: Prior literature links passively sensed information about a person's location, movement, and communication with social anxiety. These findings hold promise for identifying novel treatment targets, informing clinical care, and personalizing digital mental health interventions. However, social anxiety symptoms are heterogeneous; to identify more precise targets and tailor treatments, there is a need for personal sensing studies aimed at understanding differential predictors of the distinct subdomains of social anxiety. Our objective was to conduct a large-scale smartphone-based sensing study of fear, avoidance, and physiological symptoms in the context of trait social anxiety over time. Methods: Participants (n = 1013; 74.6 % female; M age = 40.9) downloaded the LifeSense app, which collected continuous passive data (e.g., GPS, communication, app and device use) over 16 weeks. We tested a series of multilevel linear regression models to understand within- and between-person associations of 2-week windows of passively sensed smartphone data with fear, avoidance, and physiological distress on the self-reported Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN). A shifting sensor lag was applied to examine how smartphone features related to SPIN subdomains 2 weeks in the future (distal prediction), 1 week in the future (medial prediction), and 0 weeks in the future (proximal prediction). Results: A decrease in time visiting novel places was a strong between-person predictor of social avoidance over time (distal ß = -0.886, p = .002; medial ß = -0.647, p = .029; proximal ß = -0.818, p = .007). Reductions in call- and text-based communications were associated with social avoidance at both the between- (distal ß = -0.882, p = .002; medial ß = -0.932, p = .001; proximal ß = -0.918, p = .001) and within- (distal ß = -0.191, p = .046; medial ß = -0.213, p = .028) person levels, as well as between-person fear of social situations (distal ß = -0.860, p < .001; medial ß = -0.892, p < .001; proximal ß = -0.886, p < .001) over time. There were fewer significant associations of sensed data with physiological distress. Across the three subscales, smartphone data explained 9-12 % of the variance in social anxiety. Conclusion: Findings have implications for understanding how social anxiety manifests in daily life, and for personalizing treatments. For example, a signal that someone is likely to begin avoiding social situations may suggest a need for alternative types of exposure-based interventions compared to a signal that someone is likely to begin experiencing increased physiological distress. Our results suggest that as a prophylactic means of targeting social avoidance, it may be helpful to deploy interventions involving social exposures in response to decreases in time spent visiting novel places.
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BACKGROUND: Despite the high prevalence of anxiety and depression among young adults, many do not seek formal treatment. Some may turn to digital mental health tools for support instead, including to self-track moods, behaviors, and other variables related to mental health. Researchers have sought to understand processes and motivations involved in self-tracking, but few have considered the specific needs and preferences of young adults who are not engaged in treatment and who seek to use self-tracking to support mental health. OBJECTIVE: This study seeks to assess the types of experiences young adults not engaged in treatment have had with digital self-tracking for mood and other mental health data and to assess how young adults not seeking treatment want to engage in self-tracking to support their mental health. METHODS: We conducted 2 online asynchronous discussion groups with 50 young adults aged 18 years to 25 years who were not engaged in treatment. Participants were recruited after indicating moderate to severe symptoms of depression or anxiety on screening surveys hosted on the website of Mental Health America. Participants who enrolled in the study responded anonymously to discussion prompts on a message board, as well as to each other's responses, and 3 coders performed a thematic analysis of their responses. RESULTS: Participants had mixed experiences with self-tracking in the past, including disliking when tracking highlighted unwanted behaviors and discontinuing tracking for a variety of reasons. They had more positive past experiences tracking behaviors and tasks they wanted to increase, using open-ended journaling, and with gamified elements to increase motivation. Participants highlighted several design considerations they wanted self-tracking tools to address, including building self-understanding; organization, reminders, and structure; and simplifying the self-tracking experience. Participants wanted self-tracking to help them identify their feelings and how their feelings related to other variables like sleep, exercise, and events in their lives. Participants also highlighted self-tracking as useful for motivating and supporting basic activities and tasks of daily living during periods of feeling overwhelmed or low mood and providing a sense of accomplishment and stability. Although self-tracking can be burdensome, participants were interested and provided suggestions for simplifying the process. CONCLUSIONS: These young adults not engaged in treatment reported interest in using self-tracking to build self-understanding as a goal in and of itself or as a first step in contemplating and preparing for behavior change or treatment-seeking. Alexithymia, amotivation, and feeling overwhelmed may serve both as barriers to self-tracking and opportunities for self-tracking to help.
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Background: Young adults have high rates of mental health conditions, but most do not want or cannot access treatment. By leveraging a medium that young adults routinely use, text messaging programs have potential to keep young adults engaged with content supporting self-management of mental health issues and can be delivered inexpensively at scale. We designed an intervention that imparts strategies for self-managing mental health symptoms through interactive text messaging dialogues and engages users through novelty and variety in strategies (from cognitive behavioral therapy, acceptance and commitment therapy, and positive psychology) and styles of interaction (e.g., prompts, peer stories, writing tasks). Methods: The aim of this mixed-methods study was to pilot 1- and 2-week versions of an interactive text messaging intervention among young adults (ages 18-25), and to obtain feedback to guide intervention refinements. Young adults were recruited via a mental health advocacy website and snowball sampling at a North American University. We used Wizard-of-Oz methods in which study staff sent messages based on a detailed script. Transcripts of interviews were subject to qualitative analysis to identify aspects of the program that need improvements, and to gather participant perspectives on possible solutions. Results: Forty-eight individuals ages 18-25 participated in the study (mean age: 22.0). 85 % responded to the program at least once. Among those who ever responded, they replied to messages on 85 % of days, and with engagement sustained over the study period. Participants endorsed the convenience of text messaging, the types of interactive dialogues, and the variety of content. They also identified needed improvements to message volume, scheduling, and content. Conclusions: Young adults showed high levels of engagement and satisfaction with a texting program supporting mental health self-management. The program may be improved through refining personalization, timing, and message volume, and extending content to support use over a longer timeframe. If shown to be effective in randomized trials, this program has potential to help address a substantial treatment gap in young adults' mental health.
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BACKGROUND: Relatively little is known about how communication changes as a function of depression severity and interpersonal closeness. We examined the linguistic features of outgoing text messages among individuals with depression and their close- and non-close contacts. METHODS: 419 participants were included in this 16-week-long observational study. Participants regularly completed the PHQ-8 and rated subjective closeness to their contacts. Text messages were processed to count frequencies of word usage in the LIWC 2015 libraries. A linear mixed modeling approach was used to estimate linguistic feature scores of outgoing text messages. RESULTS: Regardless of closeness, people with higher PHQ-8 scores tended to use more differentiation words. When texting with close contacts, individuals with higher PHQ-8 scores used more first-person singular, filler, sexual, anger, and negative emotion words. When texting with non-close contacts these participants used more conjunctions, tentative, and sadness-related words and fewer first-person plural words. CONCLUSION: Word classes used in text messages, when combined with symptom severity and subjective social closeness data, may be indicative of underlying interpersonal processes. These data may hold promise as potential treatment targets to address interpersonal drivers of depression.
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Envío de Mensajes de Texto , Humanos , Depresión/psicología , Lingüística , Comunicación , Estudios Observacionales como AsuntoRESUMEN
Introduction: Care coordinators (CCs) are specialized healthcare providers and often the primary point of contact for patients with multiple medical and mental health comorbidities in integrated healthcare settings. Prior work shows CCs have lower comfort addressing mental health than physical health concerns. Digital mental health interventions can support CCs' management of patient mental health needs, but training gaps must be addressed prior to a digital mental health intervention's implementation. Methods: As part of a quality improvement initiative, a 1-hour training focused on the assessment and management of depression and suicide-related thoughts and behaviors was delivered to CCs within a large midwestern healthcare system's Division of Ambulatory Care Coordination. CCs completed online surveys prior to and following the training. Conclusion: Training resulted in increased comfort working with clinical populations, including patients who experience suicide-related thoughts and behaviors. Gains around screening for suicide risk were modest. Brief trainings for CCs can address training gaps, however, ongoing training and case consultation may also be indicated.
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Without a nuanced understanding of users' perspectives and contexts, text messaging tools for supporting psychological wellbeing risk delivering interventions that are mismatched to users' dynamic needs. We investigated the contextual factors that influence young adults' day-to-day experiences when interacting with such tools. Through interviews and focus group discussions with 36 participants, we identified that people's daily schedules and affective states were dominant factors that shape their messaging preferences. We developed two messaging dialogues centered around these factors, which we deployed to 42 participants to test and extend our initial understanding of users' needs. Across both studies, participants provided diverse opinions of how they could be best supported by messages, particularly around when to engage users in more passive versus active ways. They also proposed ways of adjusting message length and content during periods of low mood. Our findings provide design implications and opportunities for context-aware mental health management systems.
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Trials of digital mental health interventions (DMHIs) often exclude individuals with suicide-related thoughts and behaviors precluding an understanding of whether DMHIs for affective disorders are safe for, and perform similarly within, this high-risk group. We explore the safety and performance of a DMHI for depression in participants with and without suicidal ideation (SI) at baseline. Three hundred and one participants were included in this secondary data analysis from a trial of an 8-week DMHI comprising 14 smartphone apps. We found that SI decreased across the study among participants with baseline SI and that baseline SI status did not attenuate depression treatment effects. Through a case study of the IntelliCare platform, we find that DMHIs for general affective disorders can be safe.
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Aplicaciones Móviles , Ideación Suicida , Humanos , Salud MentalRESUMEN
Context: Impairment in social functioning is a feature and consequence of depression and anxiety disorders. For example, in depression, anhedonia and negative feelings about the self may impact relationships; in anxiety, fear of negative evaluation may interfere with getting close to others. It is unknown whether social impairment associated with depression and anxiety symptoms is reflected in day-to-day language exchanges with others, such as through reduced language style matching (LSM). Methods: Over 16 weeks, we collected text message data from 458 adults and evaluated differences in LSM between people with average scores above/below the clinical cutoff for depression, generalized anxiety, and social anxiety in text message conversations. Text message sentiment scores were computed across 73 Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC) categories for each participant. T-tests were used to compare LSM across two groups (average scores above/below clinical cutoff) for each of the 3 diagnostic categories (depression, generalized anxiety, social anxiety), and each of the 73 LIWC categories, with correction for multiple comparisons. Results: We found reduced LSM of function words (namely, prepositions [t=-2.82, p=.032], articles [t=-5.26, p<.001], and auxiliary verbs [t=-2.64, p=.046]) in people with average scores above the clinical cutoff for generalized anxiety, and reduced LSM of prepositions (t=-4.26, p<.001) and articles (t=-3.39, p=.010) in people with average scores above the clinical cutoff for social anxiety. There were no significant differences in LSM of function words between people with average scores above and below the clinical cutoff for depression. Across all symptom categories, elevated affective psychopathology was associated with being more likely to style match on formality, including netspeak (generalized anxiety, t=5.77, p<.001; social anxiety, t=4.14, p<.001; depression, t=3.13, p=.021) and informal language (generalized anxiety, t=6.65, p<.001; social anxiety, t=5.14, p>.001; depression, t=3.20, p=.020).We also observed content-specific LSM differences across the three groups. Conclusions: Reduced LSM of function words among patients reporting elevated anxiety symptoms suggests that anxiety-related psychosocial difficulties may be perceptible in subtle cues from day-to-day language. Conversely, the absence of differences in the LSM of function words among people with average scores above and below the clinical cutoff for depression indicates a potentially distinct mechanism of social impairment. Implications: Results point to potential markers of psychosocial difficulties in daily conversations, particularly among those experiencing heightened anxiety symptoms. Future studies may consider the degree to which LSM is associated with self-reported psychosocial impairment, with the promise of informing cognitive-behavioral mechanisms and tailoring digital interventions for social skills.
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Young adults (ages 18-25) experience the highest levels of mental health problems of any adult age group, but have the lowest mental health treatment rates. Text messages are the most used feature on the mobile phone and provide an opportunity to reach non-treatment engaged users throughout the day in a conversational manner. We present the design of an automated text message-based intervention for symptom self-management. The intervention comprises: (1) psychological strategies (i.e., types of evidence-based techniques leveraged to achieve symptom reduction) and (2) interaction types or the form that intervention content takes as it is delivered to and elicited from users.
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In pursuit of mental wellness, many find that behavioral change is necessary. This process can often be difficult but is facilitated by strong social support. This paper explores the role of social support across behavioral change journeys among young adults, a group at high risk for mental health challenges, but with the lowest rates of mental health treatment utilization. Given that digital mental health tools are effective for treating mental health conditions, they hold particular promise for bridging the treatment gap among young adults, many of whom, are not interested in - or cannot access - traditional mental healthcare. We recruited a sample of young adults with depression who were seeking information about their symptoms online to participate in an Asynchronous Remote Community (ARC) elicitation workshop. Participants detailed the changing nature of social interactions across their behavior change journeys. They noted that both directed and undirected support are necessary early in behavioral change and certain needs such as informational support are particularly pronounced, while healthy coping partnerships and accountability are more important later in the change process. We discuss the conceptual and design implications of our findings for the next generation of digital mental health tools.
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OBJECTIVE: Language patterns may elucidate mechanisms of mental health conditions. To inform underlying theory and risk models, we evaluated prospective associations between in vivo text messaging language and differential symptoms of depression, generalized anxiety, and social anxiety. METHODS: Over 16 weeks, we collected outgoing text messages from 335 adults. Using Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC), NRC Emotion Lexicon, and previously established depression and stress dictionaries, we evaluated the degree to which language features predict symptoms of depression, generalized anxiety, or social anxiety the following week using hierarchical linear models. To isolate the specificity of language effects, we also controlled for the effects of the two other symptom types. RESULTS: We found significant relationships of language features, including personal pronouns, negative emotion, cognitive and biological processes, and informal language, with common mental health conditions, including depression, generalized anxiety, and social anxiety (ps < .05). There was substantial overlap between language features and the three mental health outcomes. However, after controlling for other symptoms in the models, depressive symptoms were uniquely negatively associated with language about anticipation, trust, social processes, and affiliation (ßs: -.10 to -.09, ps < .05), whereas generalized anxiety symptoms were positively linked with these same language features (ßs: .12-.13, ps < .001). Social anxiety symptoms were uniquely associated with anger, sexual language, and swearing (ßs: .12-.13, ps < .05). CONCLUSION: Language that confers both common (e.g., personal pronouns and negative emotion) and specific (e.g., affiliation, anticipation, trust, and anger) risk for affective disorders is perceptible in prior week text messages, holding promise for understanding cognitive-behavioral mechanisms and tailoring digital interventions.
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Envío de Mensajes de Texto , Adulto , Humanos , Depresión/epidemiología , Depresión/psicología , Ansiedad/epidemiología , Ansiedad/psicología , Lingüística , ActitudRESUMEN
Background: Mental health conditions are common among adolescents and young adults, yet few receive adequate mental health treatment. Many young people seek support and information online through social media, and report preferences for digital interventions. Thus, digital interventions deployed through social media have promise to reach a population not yet engaged in treatment, and at risk of worsening symptoms. Objective: In this scoping review, we aimed to identify and review empirical research on social media-based interventions aimed at improving adolescent and young adult mental health. A secondary objective was to identify the features and functionalities of platforms described as social media. Methods: Adhering to the PRISMA-ScR guidelines for scoping reviews, the search was conducted in PubMed MEDLINE; Embase Central Register of Controlled Trials (Wiley); PsycINFO (Ebsco); Scopus; Web of Science; IEEE Xplore; ACM Digital Library; and ClinicalTrials.gov from inception until November 2021. Studies were included if they involved adolescents or young adults (10-26 years of age) that meet clinical, or subclinical, levels of a mental health condition and include a pre- and post-assessment of mental health outcomes. Results: Among the 18,380 references identified, 15 met full inclusion criteria and were published between 2017 and 2021-this included four randomized controlled trials, seven non-randomized pre-post trials, and four were experimental or quasi-experimental designs. Just five studies were delivered through an existing social media site (Facebook or Pixtori), with the remainder focused on purpose-built networks. Three studies involved adolescents or young adults who self-reported a mental health condition, seven involved young people diagnosed with a mental health condition by a clinician or who scored above a clinical threshold on valid clinical measure, three involved college students without a mental health inclusion criterion, and two studies focused on young people with a cancer diagnosis. Conclusions: The review highlights innovations in the delivery of mental health interventions, provides preliminary evidence of the ability of social media interventions to improve mental health outcomes, and underscores the need for, and merit of, future work in this area. We discuss opportunities and challenges for future research, including the potential to leveragei existing peer networks, the use of just-in-time interventions, and scaling interventions to meet need.