Restoring the incentives for eco-design in extended producer responsibility: The challenges for eco-modulation.

Extended producer responsibility (EPR) is an environmental policy strategy that makes producers responsible for the waste management of their products and packages. A key goal of EPR is to incentivize producers to (re)design their products and packages to improve their environmental performance, especially at end of life. However, because of the way in which the financial structure of EPR has evolved, those incentives have largely been muted or undetectable. Eco-modulation has emerged as an additional component in EPR to restore the missing incentives for eco-design. Eco-modulation operates through changes in the fees that producers pay to meet their EPR obligations. Eco-modulation includes both increased differentiation of types of products and associated fees, and additional bonuses and penalties-environmentally targeted discounts and penalties on the fees that each producer pays. Based on primary, secondary, and grey literature, this article characterizes challenges faced by eco-modulation if it is to restore the incentives for eco-design. These include weak linkages to environmental outcomes, fees too low to induce changes in materials or design, lack of adequate data and ex post policy evaluation, and implementation that differs across jurisdictions. Opportunities to address these challenges include use of life cycle assessment (LCA) to inform eco-modulation, increased eco-modulation fees, strategies to increase harmonization of eco-modulation implementation, mandated provision of data, and policy evaluation tools that establish the efficacy of different eco-modulation schemes. Considering the scope of the challenges and the complexity of establishing eco-modulation programs, we suggest treating eco-modulation at this stage as an experiment in promoting eco-design.

Photochemical Aging Induces Changes in the Effective Densities, Morphologies, and Optical Properties of Combustion Aerosol Particles.

Effective density (ρeff) is an important property describing particle transportation in the atmosphere and in the human respiratory tract. In this study, the particle size dependency of ρeff was determined for fresh and photochemically aged particles from residential combustion of wood logs and brown coal, as well as from an aerosol standard (CAST) burner. ρeff increased considerably due to photochemical aging, especially for soot agglomerates larger than 100 nm in mobility diameter. The increase depends on the presence of condensable vapors and agglomerate size and can be explained by collapsing of chain-like agglomerates and filling of their voids and formation of secondary coating. The measured and modeled particle optical properties suggest that while light absorption, scattering, and the single-scattering albedo of soot particle increase during photochemical processing, their radiative forcing remains positive until the amount of nonabsorbing coating exceeds approximately 90% of the particle mass.

Could paper package leaflet be left out from hospital products?

Background: Package leaflet provides information about medicinal product to the user. Printed leaflet is familiar and available, however poorly legible, especially when containing multiple languages. It is resourceful to update, has potential to go missing or get damaged, and is environmentally burdensome. The pharmaceutical manufacturers in the Baltic countries have been granted permission to market selected hospital medicinal products without printed package leaflet. The industrial pilot project is expected to promote availability of medicinal products and patient safety via increased access to medicinal information. Objective: Only few countries in Europe have derogated from Article 58 of Directive 2001/83/EC. Knowledge about the effects of removal of paper package leaflet from the medicinal product is limited, and related publications are scarce. Current interview study is identifying the obstacles during the implementation of the industrial project, investigating the potential environmental impact, and searching for further opportunities for the package leaflet in development of medicinal products. Methods: Real-time person-to-person semi-structured interviews with relevant stakeholders were conducted, and transcripts were analysed by content analysis to identify themes. Results: Results demonstrated general support for removing package leaflet from selected hospital products. Main difficulties of the industrial project regarded the need for clear communication and practical disadvantages of project setup. Main benefits included educational aspect of increasing awareness about product information and strengthened collaboration. Majority of participants felt doubtful about the impact of the industrial project on people's awareness of ecological issues and they admittedly lacked sufficient information on the environmental impact of pharmaceutical packaging. Conclusion: The removal of paper leaflet could be extended to more products based on the positive feedback for the industrial pilot project. However, it is paramount that the format of electronic product information would need to be enhanced first to improve readability.

Genotoxic and inflammatory effects of spruce and brown coal briquettes combustion aerosols on lung cells at the air-liquid interface.

Solid fuel usage in residential heating and cooking is one of the largest sources of ambient and indoor air particulate matter, which causes adverse effects on the health of millions of peoples worldwide. Emissions from solid fuel combustion, such as biomass or coal, are detrimental to health, but toxicological responses are largely unknown. In the present study, we compared the toxicological responses regarding cytotoxicity, inflammation and genotoxicity of spruce (SPR) and brown coal briquette (BCB) combustion aerosols on human alveolar epithelial cells (A549) as well as a coculture of A549 and differentiated human monocytic cells (THP-1) into macrophages exposed at the air-liquid interface (ALI). We included both the high emissions from the first hour and moderate emissions from the third hour of the batch combustion experiment in one ALI system, whereas, in the second ALI system, we exposed the cells during the whole 4-hour combustion experiment, including all combustion phases. Physico-chemical properties of the combustion aerosol were analysed both online and offline. Both SPR and BCB combustion aerosols caused mild cytotoxic but notable genotoxic effects in co-cultured A549 cells after one-hour exposure. Inflammatory response analysis revealed BCB combustion aerosols to cause a mild increase in CXCL1 and CXCL8 levels, but in the case of SPR combustion aerosol, a decrease compared to control was observed.

Controlling flour dust exposure by an intervention focused on working methods in Finnish bakeries: a case study in two bakeries.

Objectives. The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of intervention strategies to control mass concentrations and peak exposures of flour dust in two Finnish bakeries. The effect of the intervention on the proportion of various particle size fractions of the total particulate matter was also investigated. Methods. Mass concentrations of flour dust were measured during three working days in a pre-intervention and post-intervention study in both an industrial and a traditional bakery. Gravimetric sampling and real-time measurements were performed. Relevant intervention strategies focused on working methods were planned in collaboration with the managers of the bakeries. Results. The average mass concentration of inhalable flour dust reduced in most of the stationary locations post intervention. The reductions in exposure levels were between 39 and 45%. However, the exposure levels increased 28-55% in the breathing zone. Real-time measurements showed reductions in the peak mass concentrations in the traditional bakery post intervention. In both bakeries, the total particulate matter size fraction consisted predominantly of particles with an aerodynamic diameter lower than 1 µm and greater than 10 µm. Conclusion. Further studies are needed to plan more effective intervention measures supplemented by technical control methods in both bakeries.

Air quality intervention during the Nanjing youth olympic games altered PM sources, chemical composition, and toxicological responses.

Ambient particulate matter (PM) is a leading global environmental health risk. Current air quality regulations are based on airborne mass concentration. However, PM from different sources have distinct chemical compositions and varied toxicity. Connections between emission control measures, air quality, PM composition, and toxicity remain insufficiently elucidated. The current study assessed the composition and toxicity of PM collected in Nanjing, China before, during, and after an air quality intervention for the 2014 Youth Olympic Games. A co-culture model that mimics the alveolar epithelium with the associated macrophages was created using A549 and THP-1 cells. These cells were exposed to size-segregated inhalable PM samples. The composition and toxicity of the PM samples were influenced by several factors including seasonal variation, emission sources, and the air quality intervention. For example, we observed a size-dependent shift in particle mass concentrations during the air quality intervention with an emphasized proportion of smaller particles (PM2.5) present in the air. The roles of industrial and fuel combustion and traffic emissions were magnified during the emission control period. Our analyses revealed that the PM samples demonstrated differential cytotoxic potencies at equal mass concentrations between sampling periods, locations, and time of day, influenced by variations in the predominant emission sources. Coal combustion and industrial emissions were the most important sources affecting the toxicological responses and displayed the least variation in emission contributions between the sampling periods. In conclusion, emission control mitigated cytotoxicity and oxidative stress for particles larger than 0.2 µm, but there was inadequate evidence to determine if it was the key factor reducing the harmful effects of PM0.2.

PM2.5 concentration and composition in the urban air of Nanjing, China: Effects of emission control measures applied during the 2014 Youth Olympic Games.

Industrial processes, coal combustion, biomass burning (BB), and vehicular transport are important sources of atmospheric fine particles (PM2.5) and contribute to ambient air concentrations of health-hazardous species, such as heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), and oxygenated-PAHs (OPAH). In China, emission controls have been implemented to improve air quality during large events, like the Youth Olympic Games (YOG) in August 2014 in Nanjing. In this work, six measurement campaigns between January 2014 and August 2015 were undertaken in Nanjing to determine the effects of emission controls and meteorological factors on PM2.5 concentration and composition. PAHs, OPAHs, hopanes, n­alkanes, heavy metals, and several other inorganic elements were measured. PM2.5 and potassium concentrations were the highest in May-June 2014 indicating the prevalence of BB plumes in Nanjing. Emission controls substantially reduced concentrations of PM2.5 (31%), total PAHs (59%), OPAHs (37%), and most heavy metals (44-89%) during the YOG compared to August 2015. In addition, regional atmospheric transport and meteorological parameters partly explained the observed differences between the campaigns. The most abundant PAHs and OPAHs were benzo[b,k]fluoranthenes, fluoranthene, pyrene, chrysene, 1,8­naphthalic anhydride, and 9,10­anthracenedione in all campaigns. Carbon preference index and the contribution of wax n­alkanes indicated mainly biogenic sources of n­alkanes in May-June 2014 and anthropogenic sources in the other campaigns. Hopane indexes pointed to vehicular transport as the major source of hopanes, but contribution of coal combustion was detected in winter 2015. The results provide evidence to the local government of the impacts of the air protection regulations. However, differences between individual components were observed, e.g., concentrations of potentially more harmful OPAHs decreased less than concentrations of PAHs. The results suggest that the proportions of hazardous components in the PM2.5 may also change considerably due to emission control measures.

Concentrations and number size distribution of fine and nanoparticles in a traditional Finnish bakery.

In bakeries, high concentrations of flour dust can exist and ovens release particles into the air as well. Particle concentrations (mass, number) and number size distribution may vary considerably but the variation is not commonly studied. Furthermore, the role of the smallest size fractions is rarely considered in the exposure assessment due to their small mass. The objectives of this work were to find out how concentrations and number size distribution of fine and nanoparticles vary in a traditional Finnish bakery and to determine the exposure of a dough maker to the nanoparticle fraction of the inhalable dust. Two measurement campaigns were carried out in a traditional, small-scale bakery. Sampling was performed at the breathing zone of the dough maker and three stationary locations: baking area, oven area, and flour depository. Both real-time measurements and conventional gravimetric sampling were conducted. Nanoparticle fraction of the inhalable dust was determined using an IOM sampler with a customized precyclone. Number concentration of fine and nanoparticles, and mass concentrations of both the inhalable dust and nanoparticles were high. The nanoparticle fraction was 9-15% of the inhalable dust at the breathing zone of the dough maker. Different sources, such as ovens and doughnut baking affected the number size distribution. Flour dust contained nanoparticles but most of the fine and nanoparticles were released into the air from the oven operations. However, nanoparticles are not a primary concern in bakeries compared to health effects linked to the large flour particles such as flour-induced sensitization or asthma and development of occupational rhinitis.

Physicochemical Characterization of Aerosol Generated in the Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of Stainless Steel.

OBJECTIVES: Exposure to stainless steel (SS) welding aerosol that contain toxic heavy metals, chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), and nickel (Ni), has been associated with numerous adverse health effects. The gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is commonly applied to SS and produces high number concentration of substantially smaller particles compared with the other welding techniques, although the mass emission rate is low. Here, a field study in a workshop with the GTAW as principal welding technique was conducted to determine the physicochemical properties of the airborne particles and to improve the understanding of the hazard the SS welding aerosols pose to welders. METHODS: Particle number concentration and number size distribution were measured near the breathing zone (50cm from the arc) and in the middle of the workshop with condensation particle counters and electrical mobility particle sizers, respectively. Particle morphology and chemical composition were studied using scanning and transmission electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. RESULTS: In the middle of the workshop, the number size distribution was unimodal with the geometric mean diameter (GMD) of 46nm. Near the breathing zone the number size distribution was multimodal, and the GMDs of the modes were in the range of 10-30nm. Two different agglomerate types existed near the breathing zone. The first type consisted of iron oxide primary particles with size up to 40nm and variable amounts of Cr, Mn, and Ni replacing iron in the structure. The second type consisted of very small primary particles and contained increased proportion of Ni compared to the proportion of (Cr + Mn) than the first agglomerate type. CONCLUSIONS: The alterations in the distribution of Ni between different welding aerosol particles have not been reported previously.

Nanosized TiO2 caused minor airflow limitation in the murine airways.

The use of nanotechnology is increasing exponentially, whereas the possible adverse health effects of engineered nanoparticles (NPs) are so far less known. Standardized mouse bioassay was used to study sensory and pulmonary irritation, airflow limitation, and inflammation potency of nanosized TiO(2). Single exposure (0.5 h) to in situ generated TiO(2) (primary particle size 20 nm; geometric mean diameters of 91, 113, and 130 nm at mass concentrations of 8, 20, and 30 mg/m(3), respectively; crystal phase anatase + brookite (3:1)) caused airflow limitation in the conducting airways at each studied exposure concentration, which was shown as a reduction in expiratory flow, being at the lowest 73% of baseline. The response was not dose dependent. Repeated exposures (altogether 16 h, 1 h/day, 4 days/week for 4 weeks) to TiO(2) at mass concentration of 30 mg/m(3) caused as intense airflow limitation effect as the single exposures, and the extent of the responses stayed about the same along the exposure days. Sensory irritation was fairly minor. Pulmonary irritation was more pronounced during the latter part of the repeated exposures compared to the single exposures and the beginning of the repeated exposures. Sensory and pulmonary irritation were observed also in the control group, and, therefore, reaction by-products (NO(2) and C(3)H(6)) may have contributed to the irritation effects. TiO(2) NPs accumulated mainly in the pulmonary macrophages, and they did not cause nasal or pulmonary inflammation. In conclusion, the irritation and inflammation potencies of studied TiO(2) seemed to be low.

Airway exposure to silica-coated TiO2 nanoparticles induces pulmonary neutrophilia in mice.

The importance of nanotechnologies and engineered nanoparticles has grown rapidly. It is therefore crucial to acquire up-to-date knowledge of the possible harmful health effects of these materials. Since a multitude of different types of nanosized titanium dioxide (TiO(2)) particles are used in industry, we explored their inflammatory potential using mouse and cell models. BALB/c mice were exposed by inhalation for 2 h, 2 h on 4 consecutive days, or 2 h on 4 consecutive days for 4 weeks to several commercial TiO(2) nanoparticles, SiO(2) nanoparticles, and to nanosized TiO(2) generated in a gas-to-particle conversion process at 10 mg/m(3). In addition, effects of in vitro exposure of human macrophages and fibroblasts (MRC-9) to the different particles were assessed. SiO(2)-coated rutile TiO(2) nanoparticles (cnTiO(2)) was the only sample tested that elicited clear-cut pulmonary neutrophilia. Uncoated rutile and anatase as well as nanosized SiO(2) did not induce significant inflammation. Pulmonary neutrophilia was accompanied by increased expression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and neutrophil-attracting chemokine CXCL1 in the lung tissue. TiO(2) particles accumulated almost exclusively in the alveolar macrophages. In vitro exposure of murine and human macrophages to cnTiO(2) elicited significant induction of TNF-alpha and neutrophil-attracting chemokines. Stimulation of human fibroblasts with cnTiO(2)-activated macrophage supernatant induced high expression of neutrophil-attracting chemokines, CXCL1 and CXCL8. Interestingly, the level of lung inflammation could not be explained by the surface area of the particles, their primary or agglomerate particle size, or radical formation capacity but is rather explained by the surface coating. Our findings emphasize that it is vitally important to take into account in the risk assessment that alterations of nanoparticles, e.g., by surface coating, may drastically change their toxicological potential.