Loss of 3p26.3 is an independent prognostic factor in patients with oral squamous cell carcinoma.

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is a common malignancy worldwide and the prognosis for patients with advanced-stage OSCC is particularly poor. To identify DNA copy number aberrations and candidate genes associated with a poor or favorable outcome, we analyzed the genome profiles of OSCC tumors by array-based comparative genomic hybrid-ization (A-CGH). This technique uses DNA microarray technology to detect genomic copy number variations at a higher resolution level than chromosome-based CGH. Fifty patients with primary OSCCs were included in the study. Of these 50 patients, 37 were treated surgically and 13 were treated without surgery and had received irradiation and/or chemotherapy. All samples were analyzed by A-CGH. Gains were detected frequently (>50%) at chromosomal regions 5p15.33, 7p22.3, 8q21.1-24.3, 9q34.3, 11q13, 16p13.3 and 20q13.3. Losses were frequently detected at 3p22, 3p14 and 4q35.2. High-level gains were recurrently (>10%) detected at each of 5p15, 7p22, 7p11, 8q24, 11q13, 11q22 and 22q11. Gains of 2p25.1, 11p15, 16p13.3, 16q24.3 and 20q13.3 were inversely correlated with nodal metastasis. In 37 of the 50 OSCC patients treated with surgery, gains of 8q12.1-24.22 and losses of 3p26.2-3 were associated with disease-specific survival (p<0.01). Loss of a 0.2 Mb chromosomal region in 3p26.3 was associated with a poor prognostic outcome in the Kaplan-Meier analysis (p<0.01 by the log-rank test). Multivariate analysis revealed that loss of 3p26.3 is an independent prognostic factor (p<0.01) of OSCC. Loss of a 0.2 Mb chromosomal region in 3p26.3 including the CHL1 (cell adhesion molecule with homology to L1CAM1) gene was identified as a novel potential marker for predicting the prognosis of patients with OSCC.

[Clinical phase I trial of S-1 in the combination with DOC using super-selective intra-arterial infusion with oral cancer].

The super-selective intra-arterial infusion, which has high anti-tumor effect to infuse high concentration of drugs into arterial in the control of tumor, has been expected to have local control. S-1, developed by the scientific theory of both potentiating antitumor activity of 5-fluorouracil(5-FU)and reducing gastrointestinal toxicity induced by 5-FU, is an active agent for squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck(HNSCC). Docetaxel(DOC)is the drug Taxanes which has anti-tumor effect by mechanism different from conventional anti-tumor mechanism of action. In Yamaguchi University, DOC+CDDP+5-FU in the three-drug combination therapy shows high anti-tumor effect for advanced oral cancer. In the present study, we conducted a phase I study to examine local control of S-1 in the combination with DOC using super-selective intra-arterial infusion with oral cancer. The study performed super-selective intra-arterial infusion of DOC on the first day, and was considered as the schedule which prescribes three-week S-1 for patients every day from same day. Since blood toxicity nature grade 4 discovered the result in S-1: 65 mg/m(2)day and DOC: 50 mg/ m(2), we decided that recommended dose(RD)was S-1: 65 mg/m(2) and DOC: 40 mg/m(2).

Molecular cytogenetic analysis of oral squamous cell carcinomas by comparative genomic hybridization, spectral karyotyping, and fluorescence in situ hybridization.

We investigated relationships between DNA copy number aberrations and chromosomal structural rearrangements in 11 different cell lines derived from oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) by comparative genomic hybridization (CGH), spectral karyotyping (SKY), and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). CGH frequently showed recurrent chromosomal gains of 5p, 20q12, 8q23 approximately qter, 20p11 approximately p12, 7p15, 11p13 approximately p14, and 14q21, as well as losses of 4q, 18q, 4p11 approximately p15, 19p13, 8p21 approximately pter, and 16p11 approximately p12. SKY identified the following recurrent chromosomal abnormalities: i(5)(p10), i(5)(q10), i(8)(q10), der(X;1)(q10;p10), der(3;5)(p10;p10), and der(3;18)(q10;p10). In addition, breakpoints detected by SKY were clustered in 11q13 and around centromeric regions, including 5p10/q10, 3p10/q10, 8p10/q10 14q10, 1p10/1q10, and 16p10/16q10. Cell lines with i(5)(p10) and i(8)(q10) showed gains of the entire chromosome arms of 5p and 8q by CGH. Moreover, breakages near the centromeres of chromosomes 5 and 8 may be associated with 5p gain, 8q gain, and 8p loss in OSCC. FISH with a DNA probe from a BAC clone mapping to 5p15 showed a significant correlation between the average numbers of i(5)(p10) and 5p15 (R(2) = 0.8693, P< 0.01) in these cell lines, indicating that DNA copy number of 5p depends upon isochromosome formation in OSCC.

Anti-tumor effect of radiation response by combined treatment with angiogenesis inhibitor, TNP-470, in oral squamous cell carcinoma.

Blocking angiogenesis may enhance conventional anticancer treatments such as radiation therapy. In this study, we examined the effects of the angiogenesis inhibitor TNP-470 on human OSCC cell lines HSC2 and KB, with combining radiation therapy in the nude mouse. We evaluated cell-induced neovascularization with dorsal air sac assay, and selected two cells (HSC2: low, KB: high) with different level of cell-induced angiogenesis. The angiogenesis inhibitor TNP-470 was given 30 mg/kg s.c. daily on day 1-5, and irradiation, 8 Gy x 1, was administered on day 1 each week for 3 weeks. Significant inhibition of tumor growth relative to untreated controls was achieved in KB cells showing high induced angiogenesis with both TNP-470 (P < 0.01) and radiation (P < 0.01) and combining TNP-470 and radiation (P < 0.01). We saw little effect of TNP-470 either alone or in addition to the effect of radiation on the HSC2 cells showing low induced angiogenesis. These results suggested that TNP-470 significantly enhanced the effect of radiation on the cells with high neovascularization. These findings indicated that individual evaluation of each tumor neovascularization potential will be important before deciding the anti-angiogenesis treatment.

High frequency methylation of p16INK4A gene during 4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide-induced rat tongue carcinogenesis.

The p16INK4A tumor suppressor gene can be inactivated by hypermethylation of the promoter region in many type of tumors including oral cancer. We recently studied the relationship of inactivation of p16INK4A and tumorigenesis in oral cancer. The aim of the present study was to describe the relationship between macroscopic changes of rat oral mucosa treated with 4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide (4NQO) and an inactivation of p16INK4A. We analyzed the relation of p16INK4A inactivation by hypermethylation of the promoter region of p16INK4A gene using polymerase chain reaction (PCR), PCR-single-strand confirmation polymorphism (PCR-SSCP), and methylation-specific-PCR (MSP). We observed that methylation of p16INK4A genes were rare in mild and moderate dysplasia, but inactivation was observed at high frequency even in severe dysplasia and SCCs in rat carcinogenesis. The expression pattern of p16INK4A protein, detected by western blotting and immunohistochemistry, were similar to the hypermethylation status of the p16INK4A promoter region. Inactivation by hypermethylation of the promoter region of p16INK4A gene was related to carcinogenesis of oral cancer.

Overexpression of cyclooxygenase-2 is associated with radioresistance in oral squamous cell carcinoma.

Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), an inducible isoform of cyclooxygenase, is overexpressed in many types of malignant tumors, which in turn may stimulate tumor growth and protect against damage by irradiation or cytotoxic agents. The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between the radiation sensitivity and elevated level of COX-2. Radiation sensitivity of the eight oral SCC cell lines differed greatly in their response to radiation. Further, the level of the COX-2 expression correlated inversely with increased tumor radiation sensitivity. The similar significant association between the response to preoperative radiation therapy and COX-2 overexpression was observed in the oral SCC patients. In addition, treatment with a COX-2 selective inhibitor enhanced the radioresponse of HSC-2 cell, which constitutively expressed COX-2. These results suggested that COX-2 expression level correlates to radiation tolerance and the COX-2 selective inhibitor may be a potent enhancer for tumor radioresponse in oral SCC.

Basic and clinical studies on quantitative analysis of lymph node micrometastasis in oral cancer.

Metastasis to cervical lymph nodes (LN) is significantly associated with the outcome of patients with oral cancer. To provide a useful method for the detection of micrometastases, we analyzed 115 LNs from 10 patients with oral cancer using real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based on the expression of squamous cell carcinoma antigen (SCCA) and cytokeratin 13 (CK13). The sensitivity and quantification of this method were assessed by means of limited dilution of cultured oral cancer cells and a model of cervical LN-metastasis established by inoculating green fluorescent protein (GFP)-expressing cells into the tongue of nude mice. In both investigations, a few cancer cells were detected by real-time quantitative PCR, but not by conventional reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR). SCCA mRNA was detected at high levels in metastatic LNs. In contrast, 26 of the 30 control cervical LNs did not express the gene at all, and the rest showed fairly low levels. Of 108 histologically metastasis-negative LNs, 19 (17.6%) expressed SCCA mRNA levels higher than the cut-off value (1.0: mean expression of control LNs + 2SD). CK13 mRNA is not a suitable marker for the real-time PCR since it was detected frequently even in the control LNs. These findings suggest that genetic diagnosis by real-time quantitative PCR based on SCCA mRNA expression may be clinically useful for detecting occult tumor cells in cervical LNs.

Expression of vascular endothelial growth factor A, B, C, and D in oral squamous cell carcinoma.

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) A is known to play an important role in tumor angiogenesis. The additional members of the VEGF family, VEGF B, C and D have been discovered. VEGF C and D show some selectivity toward lymphatic endothelial cells. However, whether VEGF family members play a role in tumor angiogenesis and lymph node metastasis is largely unknown. The aim of the present study was to explore the role of VEGF family members in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). We evaluated the expression of VEGF family members by immunohistochemistry, reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, and western blotting. All VEGF members were expressed at different levels in OSCC. Immunohistological analysis of VEGF family members expression and microvessel density revealed a correlation between VEGF A and B expression and tumor angiogenesis. Although VEGF A and B expression were detected in both node-positive and node-negative OSCC, VEGF C and D expression was detected frequently in node-positive tumors compared to node-negative tumors. These findings suggest a possible relationship between the expression level of VEGF C and/or D and development of lymphatic tumor spread.

Gefitinib ('Iressa', ZD1839), an epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor, up-regulates p27KIP1 and induces G1 arrest in oral squamous cell carcinoma cell lines.

High expression of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is frequently observed in many solid tumor types including oral squamous cell carcinomas (OSCC). Recently, the results of preclinical studies and early clinical trials targeting the EGFR have shown evidence of the activity. In this study, gefitinib ('Iressa', ZD1839), an EGFR-tyrosine kinase inhibitor, inhibited cell proliferation and upregulated p27KIP1 in OSCC cells. Growth inhibition was observed in OSCC xenografts when mice were treated with gefitinib in vivo. A flow cytometric analysis demonstrated that treatment with gefitinib induced accumulation in G1 phase, accompanied by a decrease in the percentage of cells in S phase. Apoptosis was not seen in this study. Cell growth was inhibited by an increase of the cell cycle inhibitor p27KIP1 and a decrease of its ubiquitin ligase subunit Skp2.

Enhancement of tumor radioresponse by combined treatment with gefitinib (Iressa, ZD1839), an epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor, is accompanied by inhibition of DNA damage repair and cell growth in oral cancer.

Molecular blockade of EGFR with either an EGFR MAb or an EGFR TKI enhances the radiosensitivity of human SCCs. In the present study, we investigated whether treatment with the EGFR TKI gefitinib (Iressa, ZD1839) improves the response to radiotherapy in the OSCC cell lines HSC2 and HSC3. We examined potential mechanisms that may contribute to the enhanced radiation response induced by gefitinib. Growth inhibition was observed in vitro with radiation or gefitinib. A cooperative antiproliferative effect was obtained when cancer cells were treated with radiation followed by gefitinib. Cells treated with a combination of radiation and gefitinib arrested in G(1) and G(2)-M phases, with a decrease in the S-phase population. While radiation alone did not significantly affect MEK1/2 and p38 MAPK autophosphorylation, the combination of gefitinib and radiation completely inhibited the downstream signaling of EGFR. Results from DNA damage repair analysis in cultured OSCC cells demonstrated that gefitinib had a strong inhibitory effect on DNA-PKc pathways after radiation. Tumor xenograft studies demonstrated that the combination of gefitinib and radiation caused growth inhibition and tumor regression of well-established OSCC tumors in athymic mice; tumor volume was reduced from 1,008.2 to 231.4 mm(3) in HSC2 cells (p < 0.01) and from 284.2 to 12.4 mm(3) in HSC3 cells (p < 0.01). Immunohistochemical analysis of OSCC xenografts revealed that gefitinib caused a striking decrease in tumor cell proliferation when combined with radiotherapy. Overall, we conclude that gefitinib enhances tumor radioresponse by multiple mechanisms that may involve antiproliferative growth inhibition and effects on DNA repair after exposure to radiation.

Gefitinib ('Iressa'), an epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor, mediates the inhibition of lymph node metastasis in oral cancer cells.

High expression of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is frequently observed in many solid tumor types including oral squamous cell carcinomas (OSCC). This study investigated whether treatment with gefitinib ('Iressa'), an EGFR-tyrosine kinase inhibitor, would inhibit the metastatic spread in OSCC cells. This was evaluated using orthotopic xenografts of highly metastatic OSCC. Metastasis was observed in six of 13 gefitinib treated animals (46.2%), compared with all of 12 control animals (100%). After exposure to gefitinib, OSCC cells showed a marked reduction in cell adhesion ability to fibronectin and in the expression of integrin alpha3, alphav, beta1, beta4, beta5 and beta6.

Up-regulation of DNA-dependent protein kinase correlates with radiation resistance in oral squamous cell carcinoma.

DNA-PK is a nuclear protein with serine/threonine kinase activity and forms a complex consisting of the DNA-PKcs and a heterodimer of Ku70 and Ku80 proteins. Recent laboratory experiments have demonstrated that the DNA-PK complex formation is one of the major pathways by which mammalian cells respond to DNA double-strand breaks induced by ionizing radiation. In this study, we evaluated the relationship between expression levels of DNA-PKcs, Ku70 and Ku80 proteins and radiation sensitivity in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) cell lines and in OSCC patients treated with preoperative radiation therapy. The OSCC cell lines greatly differed in their response to irradiation, as assessed by a standard colony formation assay. However, the expression levels of the DNA-PK complex proteins were all similar, and there was no association between the magnitude of their expression and the tumor radiation sensitivity. Expression of DNA-PK complex proteins increased after radiation treatment, and the increased values correlated with the tumor radiation resistance. Expression of DNA-PKcs and Ku70 after irradiation was increased in the surviving cells of OSCC tissues irradiated preoperatively. These results suggest that up-regulation of DNA-PK complex protein, especially DNA-PKcs, after radiation treatment correlates to radiation resistance. DNA-PKcs might be a molecular target for a novel radiation sensitization therapy of OSCC.

Enhancement of radiosensitivity in head and neck cancer cells by ZD1839 ('IRESSA'), a selective epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor.

Overexpression of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is frequently observed in many solid tumor types, including head and neck squamous cell carcinomas (HNSCC). Recent laboratory experiments have demonstrated that high EGFR levels correlate with increased tumor resistance to radiation. This study investigated the relationship between EGFR expression levels and radiosensitivity in 5 HNSCC cell lines (HSC2, HSC3, HSC4, SCC25, and Ca9-22) and whether treatment with ZD1839 ('Iressa'), a selective EGFR-tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI), would improve tumor cell response to radiotherapy. ZD1839 suppressed the growth of HNSCC cell lines in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Radiosensitivity of these HNSCC cell lines, assessed by a clonogenic survival assay, differed greatly and the expression of EGFR varied. EGFR expression levels (EGFR numbers/cell) correlated with increased tumor resistance to radiation (f[x]= 4.54 X, R2 = 0.715; f[x]: EGFR numbers/cell, X: radiosensitivity; D10). Following exposure of the HNSCC cells to 1.0 microM ZD1839 and radiation (0-10 Gy), greater than additive growth inhibitory effects were observed. These results suggest that ZD1839 could enhance tumor radiosensitivity and inhibit tumor growth after radiation, indicating that this combination could have clinical potential in the treatment of patients with head and neck cancer.

Skp2 and Jab1 expression are associated with inverse expression of p27(KIP1) and poor prognosis in oral squamous cell carcinomas.

Previous studies have shown that low levels of p27(KIP1), an inhibitor of G1 cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK), are associated with high aggressiveness and poor prognosis in a variety of cancers. Decreased levels of p27(KIP1) are caused, at least in part, by an acceleration of degradation with Skp2 (S-phase kinase-associated protein 2) and Jab1 (Jun activation domain-binding protein 1). This investigation was undertaken to examine whether the Skp2 and Jab1 expression is correlated with p27(KIP1) protein levels, and how it is clinically relevant in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). The correlations between p27(KIP1) and Skp2, and p27(KIP1) and Jab1 expression were evaluated by Western blot analysis. Immunohistochemical analysis was done in 75 cases of OSCC. A strongly significant inverse correlation was found between levels of p27(KIP1) and Skp2, and p27(KIP1) and Jab1 (p < 0.0001). Thus, decreased levels of p27(KIP1) were associated with strongly increased levels of Skp2 and Jab1, whereas high levels of p27(KIP1) coincided with low levels of Skp2 and Jab1. Reductions of p27(KIP1) expression and overexpression of Skp2 and Jab1 were significantly associated with cervical lymph node metastasis and poor prognosis. Overexpression of Skp2 and Jab1 is associated with the reduction of p27(KIP1) expression, and may have a role in the progression of OSCC.

Flavopiridol, a cyclin dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitor, induces apoptosis by regulating Bcl-x in oral cancer cells.

Flavopiridol is a synthetic flavone that inhibits tumor growth by suppressing cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs). We have investigated effects of flavopiridol in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). Flavopiridol was found to inhibit the growth of OSCC cells in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Induction of apoptosis was observed in all cells showing accumulated cells with sub-G(1) DNA contents, DNA fragmentations, and PARP cleavages. While Bcl-2 and Bax expression did not change, Bcl-x(L) was down regulated and Bcl-xs was up-regulated after being exposed to flavopiridol. Flavopiridol treatments also resulted in remarkable reductions of cyclin A, cyclin B, and cyclin D1 expressions. We also found that expression levels of CDK activation kinase and CDC25C were reduced, and p34 inactive form CDK2 were up-regulated. Our data indicate that flavopiridol has growth inhibition activities against OSCC. Flavopiridol not only inhibits CDKs directly, but it also inhibits the CDKs activation pathway and activates the Bcl-x apoptotic pathway.

Lymph node metastasis of oral cancer visualized in live tissue by green fluorescent protein expression.

Here, we report the establishment of a stably transfected cell line which expresses high levels of green fluorescent protein (GFP), thus permitting the detection and visualization of developing tumors and lymph node metastases after injection into nude mice. Cells of the human oral squamous carcinoma cell line (SAS-L1) were transfected with an expression vector containing a cDNA encoding humanized GFP and the neomycin resistance gene. A clone with stable high-level expression of GFP was selected in vitro using G418. To study metastasis formation, GFP-expressing cells were injected orthotopically into the tongue of nude mice. The resultant tumor growth in the tongue and micrometastases in the lymph nodes could be visualized by GFP fluorescence. Therefore a useful model has been developed for the study of oral cancer, firstly to understand the metastatic process and secondly for the evaluation of potential treatments.

Anti-epidermal growth factor receptor monoclonal antibody 225 upregulates p27(KIP1) and p15(INK4B) and induces G1 arrest in oral squamous carcinoma cell lines.

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) regulates the growth and progression of human oral squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). Recently, the link between EGFR signaling and the cell cycle has been identified. Some reports have described that EGFR-blocking monoclonal antibody 225 (mAb225) induced G1 arrest and inhibited the growth of various cancer cells. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of mAb225 on human oral SCC cell lines. Exposure to mAb225 in culture inhibited the growth of oral SCC cell lines in an EGFR number-independent manner, with the percent inhibition ranging from 13.8 to 76.6%. Flow-cytometric analysis demonstrated that treatment with mAb225 induced cell accumulation in G1 phase, accompanied by a decrease in the percentage of cells in the S phase. Apoptosis was not seen in this study. G1 arrest was accompanied by a decrease in CDK2-, CDK4-, and CDK6-associated histone H1 kinase activities, and an increase in the expression levels of cell cycle inhibitors p27(KIP1) and p15(INK4B). These results suggested that the antiproliferative effect of EGFR blockade by mAb225 in oral SCC may be mediated by p27(KIP1) and p15(INK4B).

Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor (roscovitine) suppresses growth and induces apoptosis by regulating Bcl-x in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma cells.

Cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks) play essential roles in the intracellular controls of the cell cycles. Roscovitine, [2-(R)-(1-ethyl-2-hydroxyethylamino)-6-benzylamino-9-isopropylpurine], is a potent and selective inhibitor of the Cdk2 and Cdc2. We investigated whether this compound was effective against head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) cells. Roscovitine was found to inhibit the growth of all 11 HNSCC cell lines in time- and dose-dependent manner and to diminish the Cdk2 and Cdc2 activities. An induction of apoptosis was observed in all cells, as judged by the cell morphology, along with the appearance of cells with sub-G1 DNA contents, DNA fragmentations, and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) cleavage. In four HNSCC cell lines, apoptosis was induced without antecedent marked cell cycle arrest, and in the other seven cell lines, cell cycle arrest preceded cell death. We also found up-regulation of Bcl-xS in the former cell lines, and in the latter cell lines, the expressions of Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL were induced simultaneously. These results suggest that roscovitine exerts antitumor activities in HNSCC and is associated with induction of Bcl-xS. Roscovitine can be considered to provide a new chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic strategy for the clinical management of HNSCC.

Expression of cell cycle control proteins in normal epithelium, premalignant and malignant lesions of oral cavity.

In this study, we examined the expression of cyclins, cyclin dependent kinase (CDKs) and CDK inhibitors by immunohistochemical analysis in 20 normal mucosa, 42 epithelial dysplasia (ED), and 117 oral squamous cell carcinoma. Neither Cyclin D1 nor CDK2 were detectable in normal tissue and ED. Their presence, however, was detectable in squamous cell carcinoma (SCCs) (Cyclin D1, 35.9%; CDK2, 66.7%). Cyclin E was detectable in 57.1% of severe ED and 62.8% of SCCs. For the CDK inhibitors, these proteins were detectable in all normal mucosa and most of the mild and moderate ED. For severe ED, expression of these proteins was not observed in some cases (p12(DOC-1), 14.3%; p16(INK4A), 28.6%; p27(KIP1), 7.1%). For SCCs, the expression of p12(DOC-1) was lost in 71.8%, p16(INK4A) in 69.2% and p27(KIP1) in 35.9%. These results suggest that elevated expression of cyclin D1, cyclin E, CDK2 and loss of p12(DOC-1), p16(INK4A) and p27(KIP1) may contribute to the multistep nature of oral carcinogenesis.