Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities of Ayapana triplinervis essential oil rich in thymohydroquinone dimethyl ether from Brazil.

Ayapana triplinervis (M.Vahl) R.M.King & H.Rob. (Asteraceae), popularly known as japana, is a tropical, aromatic subshrub widely used as tea to combat some diseases. The essential oil was obtained from the leaves by hydrodistillation (3 h), and the chemical composition was analyzed by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. For in vivo assays, Mus musculus/Swiss mice were used to evaluate oral acute toxicological (at dose of 2000 mg/kg); peripheral and central analgesic for abdominal contortion (doses of 6.25, 12.5, 25, 50 and 100 mg/kg), hot plate test (12.5, 25, 50, and 100 mg/kg) and formalin (25, 50 and 100 mg/kg); open field test (100 mg/kg); and anti-inflammatory by ear swelling induced by xylene (6.25,12.5, 25, 50, and 100 mg/kg). The yield of A. triplinervis essential oil (AtEO) was 4.6%, and the oxygenated monoterpene 2,5-dimethoxy-p-cymene was the major compound in this study (63.6%). AtEO at a dose of 2,000 mg/kg orally did not change the behavior patterns or mortality of the animals; liver and kidney biochemical levels were similar to the control group, indicating no liver and kidney toxicity. Moreover, AtEO, at doses of 6.25, 12.5, 25, 50, and 100 mg/kg, reduced abdominal contortions by 21%, 54%, 91%, 58%, and 55%, respectively. In the hot plate test, AtEO showed a significant increase in latency time in the 60-min interval at doses of 25 mg/kg (11.3 ± 3.3 s) and 100 mg/kg (11.9 ± 0.9 s). In the first phase of the formalin test, AtEO decreased paw licking time at doses of 25, 50, and 100 mg/kg, with inhibition of 22%, 38%, and 83%; in the second phase, the same doses, decreased licking time with inhibition of 24%, 34%, and 76%. AtEO did not present a significant change in the spontaneous locomotor activity of the animals. Doses of 6.25, 12.5, 25, 50, and 100 mg/kg significantly reduced ear edema induced by topical application of xylene with percentages of 40%, 39%, 54%, 45%, and 45%, respectively. So, AtEO demonstrated low acute oral toxicity and exhibited significant antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory actions, consistent with the use of A. triplinervis in traditional medicine.

Lippia alba essential oil: A powerful and valuable antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory medicinal plant from Brazil.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: In Brazilian popular medicine, Lippia alba leaves are used in teas to treat pain and inflammatory diseases. AIM OF THE STUDY: to evaluate the chemical composition, antinociceptive, and anti-inflammatory activities of Lippia alba essential oil and its major compound geraniol. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Lippia alba leaves were collected in Pará state, Brazil. The leaf essential oil was obtained using a modified Clevenger-type extractor. Then, the oil was analyzed by GC and GC-MS analyses. To evaluate the toxicity of LaEO and geraniol, the doses of 50, 300, and 2000 mg/kg were used in a mouse model. For antinociception tests, abdominal contortion, hot plate, and formalin tests were used; all groups were treated with LaEO and geraniol at doses of 25, 50, and 100 mg/kg; and to evaluate inflammation using the ear edema model. RESULTS: The constituents identified in the highest content were oxygenated monoterpenes: geraniol (37.5%), geranial (6.7%) and neral (3.8%). The animals treated with LaEO and geraniol demonstrated atypical behaviors with aspects of lethargy and drowsiness, characteristics of animals in a state of sedation; the relative weights showed no significant difference compared to the controls. In the abdominal contortion test, LaEO at 25 mg/kg, 50 mg/kg doses, and 100 mg/kg reduced the number of contortions, representing a percentage reduction of 84.64%, 81.23%, and 66.21% respectively. In the hot plate test, LaEO and geraniol increased the latency time at doses of 25, 50, and 100 mg/kg in all test periods; there was no statistical difference between LaEO and geraniol. In the first phase of the formalin test, only doses of 25 mg/kg and 100 mg/kg of LaEO showed significant activity, reducing the latency time by 53.40% and 58.90%. LaEO at doses of 25 mg/kg and 100 mg/kg reduced the size of the edema, demonstrating an anti-inflammatory activity of 59.38% (25 mg/kg) and 50% (100 mg/kg). CONCLUSION: Lippia alba essential oil and geraniol showed central/peripheral analgesic and anti-inflammatory potential and can be used as an alternative or complementary treatment to conventional drugs. More studies are needed to evaluate its action mechanisms and its analgesic effects.

Volatile Constituents of Some Myrtaceous Edible and Medicinal Fruits from the Brazilian Amazon.

Native and exotic fruits from the Amazon have varied characteristics, with aroma being a decisive factor in their acceptance for medicinal use as a nutraceutical supplement. This work aimed to analyze the chemical constituents of the volatile concentrates of some Myrtaceous fruit species sampled in the Brazilian Amazon. The fruit's pulps were subjected to simultaneous distillation-extraction, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was used to analyze their volatile chemical composition. In the volatile concentrate of Eugenia stipitata (Araçá-boi) α-pinene (17.5%), citronellyl butanoate (15.6%), and pogostol (13.5%) were identified as primary constituents; Eugenia uniflora (Ginja) concentrate comprised curzerene (30.5%), germacrone (15.4%), atractylone (13.1%), and (E)-ß-ocimene (11.1%); in Myrciaria dubia (Camu-Camu), α-pinene (55.8%), (E)-ß-ocimene (13.1%), and α-terpineol (10.0%) were present; in Psidium guajava (Goiaba) were (2E)-hexenal (21.7%), hexanal (15.4%), caryophylla-4(12),8(13)-dien-5-ß-ol (10.5%), caryophyllene oxide (9.2%), and pogostol (8.3%); and in Psidium guineense (Araçá), limonene (25.2%), ethyl butanoate (12.1%), epi-ß-bisabolol (9.8%), and α-pinene (9.2%) were the main constituents. The analyzed volatile concentrates of these fruit species presented a significant diversity of constituents with a predominance of functional groups, such as monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and fatty acid derivatives, originating from the plant's secondary metabolism and playing an important role in their nutritional and medicinal uses.

Antifungal chemosensitization through induction of oxidative stress: A model for control of candidiasis based on the Lippia origanoides essential oil.

In this work, evaluated the antifungal chemosensitizing effect of the Lippia origanoides essential oil (EO) through the induction of oxidative stress. The EO was obtained by hydrodistillation and analyzed by GC-MS. To evaluate the antifungal chemosensitizing effect through induction of oxidative stress, cultures of the model yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae ∆ycf1 were exposed to sub-inhibitory concentrations of the EO, and the expression of genes known, due be overexpressed in response to oxidative and mutagenic stress was analyzed by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) method. Carvacrol and thymol were identified as the main components. The EO was effective in preventing or reducing the growth of the microorganisms tested. The gene expression profiles showed that EO promoted changes in the patterns of expression of genes involved in oxidative and mutagenic stress resistance. The combined use of the L. origanoides EO with fluconazole has been tested on Candida yeasts and the strategy resulted in a synergistic enhancement of the antifungal action of the azolic chemical product. Indeed, in association with EO, the fluconazole MICs dropped. Thus, the combinatorial use of L. origanoides EO as a chemosensitizer agent should contribute to enhancing the efficiency of conventional antifungal drugs, reducing their negative side effects.

Exploring the impact of seasonal variations on the chemical composition, antinociceptive, and anti-inflammatory properties of Pogostemon heyneanus Benth. essential oil.

Background: Pogostemon heyneanus leaves infusions are relevant in ethnopharmacology for treating colds, coughs, headaches, and asthma. Purpose: The essential oil chemical composition of a Pogostemon heyneanus specimen was monthly monitored from October 2021 to July 2022 to evaluate the climatic influences on its yield and chemical composition and antinociceptive, andanti-inflammatory properties. Methods: The leaves, collected monthly over a 10-month period, were submitted to hydrodistillation. The oils obtained were analyzed by gas chromatography coupled to a mass spectrometer and gas chromatography coupled to flame ionization detector. The P. heyneanus essential oil (PhEO) was tested in vivo to evaluate its peripheral analgesic actions through the abdominal writhing test induced by acetic acid, and peripheral analgesia by tail immersion. Neurogenic and inflammatory pain were evaluated by formalin test, and acute oral toxicity of the oil was also verified. Results: PhEO presented 27 chemical constituents with the highest predominance of patchoulol (43.6%-76.9%), α-bulnesene (0.2%-12.7%), α-guaiene (0.4%-8.9%), seychellene (3.8%-5.1%) and pogostol (0.0%-8.2%). The climatic parameters insolation, humidity, rainfall, and temperature did not influence the essential oil yield or the main chemical constituents, except for pogostol, which presented a strong (r = 0.73) and statistically significant (p < 0.05) correlation with temperature. PhEO did not display toxicity at the maximum 300 mg/kg dosage. The oil showed low peripheral and central analgesic action at 100 mg/kg, while in the neurogenic and inflammatory pain inhibition tests, no actions related to PhEO were observed. In the carrageenan-induced peritonitis test, PhEO did not reduce the migration of leukocytes to the peritoneal cavity compared to the control group. Conclusion: Pogostemon heyneanus is a resistant plant to seasonal influences and a source of patchoulol. Despite ethnopharmacological indications, no in-vivo biological activities such as neurogenic or inflammatory pain were identified in the present work. So, the low influence of the climatic parameters on chemical composition can infer that the low pharmacological activity is also not subject to climatic variations, that is, it does not change due to the climate.

Seasonal Variation in Essential Oil Composition and Antioxidant Capacity of Aniba canelilla (Lauraceae): A Reliable Source of 1-Nitro-2-phenylethane.

Aniba canelilla (Kunth) Mez essential oil has many biological activities due to its main compound 1-nitro-2-phenylethane (1N2F), followed by methyleugenol, a carcinogenic agent. This study analyzed the influence of seasonality on yields, antioxidant capacity, and 1N2F content of A. canelilla leaf and twig essential oils. Essential oils (EOs) were extracted with hydrodistillation and analyzed with gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry and a flame ionization detector. Antioxidant capacity was measured using the free radical scavenging method (DPPH). Chemometric analyses were carried out to verify the influence of climatic factors on the production and composition of EOs. 1-Nitro-2-phenylethane was the major constituent in A. canelilla EOs throughout the seasonal period (68.0-89.9%); methyleugenol was not detected. Essential oil yields and the 1N2F average did not show a statistically significant difference between the dry and rainy seasons in leaves and twigs. Moderate and significant correlations between major compounds and climate factor were observed. The twig oils (36.0 ± 5.9%) a showed greater antioxidant capacity than the leaf oils (20.4 ± 5.0%). The PCA and HCA analyses showed no statistical differences between the oil samples from the dry and rainy seasons. The absence of methyleugenolin in all months of study, described for the first time, makes this specimen a reliable source of 1N2F.

Seasonal Variability of a Caryophyllane Chemotype Essential Oil of Eugenia patrisii Vahl Occurring in the Brazilian Amazon.

Eugenia patrisii Vahl is a native and non-endemic myrtaceous species of the Brazilian Amazon. Due to few botanical and phytochemical reports of this species, the objective of the present work was to evaluate the seasonal variability of their leaf essential oils, performed by GC and GC-MS and chemometric analysis. The results indicated that the variation in oil yields (0.7 ± 0.1%) could be correlated with climatic conditions and rainy (R) and dry seasons (D). (E)-caryophyllene (R = 17.1% ± 16.0, D = 20.2% ± 17.7) and caryophyllene oxide (R = 30.1% ± 18.4, D = 14.1% ± 19.3) are the major constituents and did not display significant differences between the two seasons. However, statistically, a potential correlation between the main constituents of E. patrisii essential oil and the climatic parameters is possible. It was observed that the higher temperature and insolation rates and the lower humidity rate, which are characteristics of the dry season, lead to an increase in the (E)-caryophyllene contents, while lower temperature and insolation and higher humidity, which occur in the rainy season, lead to an increase in the caryophyllene oxide content. The knowledge of variations in the E. patrisii essential oil composition could help choose the best plant chemical profile for medicinal purposes.

Seasonal and Antioxidant Evaluation of Essential Oil from Eugenia uniflora L., Curzerene-Rich, Thermally Produced in Situ.

The essential oil of Eugenia uniflora has been attributed anti-depressive, antinociceptive, antileishmanial, larvicidal, antioxidant, antibacterial, and antifungal activities. It is known that the cultivation of this plant can be affected by seasonality, promoting alteration in the oil composition and its biological activities. This study aims to perform the annual evaluation of the curzerene-type oil of E. uniflora and determine its antioxidant activity. The oil yield from the dry season (1.4 ± 0.6%) did not differ statistically from that of the rainy season (1.8 ± 0.8%). Curzerene, an oxygenated sesquiterpene, was the principal constituent, and its percentage showed no significant difference between the two periods: dry (42.7% ± 6.1) and rainy (40.8 ± 5.9%). Principal component and hierarchical cluster analyses presented a high level of similarity between the monthly samples of the oils. Also, in the annual study, the yield and composition of the oils did not present a significant correlation with the climatic variables. The antioxidant activity of the oils showed inhibition of DPPH radicals with an average value of 55.0 ± 6.6%. The high curzerene content in the monthly oils of E. uniflora suggests their potential for use as a future phytotherapeutic alternative.

Composition, antioxidant capacity and cytotoxic activity of Eugenia uniflora L. chemotype-oils from the Amazon.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Oils and extracts of Eugenia uniflora have been reported as antimicrobial, antifungal, antinociceptive, antiprotozoal, antioxidant and cytotoxic. AIM OF THE STUDY: The oils of five specimens (E1 to E5) that occur in the Brazilian Amazon were extracted, analyzed for their chemical composition, and submitted to antioxidant and cytotoxic assays. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Oils were hydrodistilled, analyzed by GC and GC-MS, and submitted to PCA and HCA analyses. The antioxidant activity of the oils was evaluated by the DPPH radical scavenging and the ß-carotene/linoleic acid assays. Antiproliferative effects of the oils and curzerene were tested against colon (HCT-116), gastric (AGP-01), and melanoma (SKMEL-19) human cancer cell lines and a normal human fibroblast cell line (MRC-5), using MTT assay. RESULTS: Oxygenated sesquiterpenes and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons such as curzerene, selina-1,3,7(11)-trien-2-one, selina-1,3,7(11)-trien-2-one epoxide, germacrene B, caryophyllene oxide, and (E)-caryophyllene were predominant in the oils. PCA and HCA analyses classified the oils samples into four chemotypes. TEAC values of chemotype II (E3 oil, 228.3 ±â€¯19.2 mg TE/mL) and chemotype III (E4 oil, 217.0 ±â€¯23.3 mg TE/mL) displayed significant antioxidant activities. The oils E2 and E4 showed cytotoxic activity against all cell lines tested HCT-116 (IC50 E2:16.26 µg/mL; IC50 E4:9.28 µg/mL), AGP-01, (IC50 E2:12.60 µg/mL; IC50 E4:8.73 µg/mL), SKMEL-19 (IC50 E2:12.20 µg/mL; IC50 E4:15.42 µg/mL), and MRC-5 (IC50 E2:10.27 µg/mL; IC50 E4:14.95 µg/mL). Curzerene showed the more significant activity against melanoma cells (SKMEL-19, IC50:5.17 µM), induced apoptosis at 5.0 µM and 10.0 µM compared to DMSO, exhibiting a decrease in the cell migration at 5.0 µM and 10.0 µM, after 30 h of treatment. CONCLUSION: The curzerene chemotype oil and E. uniflora oils can be indicated as drug candidates for anticancer activity of the lung, colon, stomach, and melanoma, with a real prospect to their subsequent phytotherapeutic development.

Chemical variability in the essential oil of leaves of Araçá (Psidium guineense Sw.), with occurrence in the Amazon.

BACKGROUND: Psidium guineense, known as Araçá, is a Brazilian botanical resource with commercial application perspectives, based on the functional elements of its fruits and due to the use of its leaves as an anti-inflammatory and antibacterial agent. The essential oils of leaves of twelve specimens of Araçá were analyzed by GC and GC-MS to identify their volatile constituents and associate them with the biological activities reputed to the plant. RESULTS: In a total of 157 identified compounds, limonene, α-pinene, ß-caryophyllene, epi-ß-bisabolol, caryophyllene oxide, ß-bisabolene, α-copaene, myrcene, muurola-4,10(14)-dien-1-ß-ol, ß-bisabolol, and ar-curcumene were the primary components in descending order up to 5%. Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA) and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) displayed three different groups with the following chemical types: limonene/α-pinene, ß-bisabolene/epi-ß-bisabolol, and ß-caryophyllene/caryophyllene oxide. With the previous description of another chemical type rich in spathulenol, it is now understood that at least four different chemotypes for P. guineense should occur. CONCLUSIONS: In addition to the use of the Araçá fruits, which are rich in minerals and functional elements, it should be borne in mind that the knowledge of the chemical composition of the essential oils of leaves of their different chemical types may contribute to the selection of varieties with more significant biological activity.

Chemical Profile and in vitro Biological Activities of Essential Oils of Nectandra puberula and N. cuspidata from the Amazon.

Essential oils (EO) from leaves and branches of Nectandra puberda Schott (Nees) and from leaves of N. cuspidata Nees & Mart. were obtained by hydrodistillation and their chemical compositions determined by gas chromatography - mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The main compounds identified from N. puberula EO were apiole (22.2%), ß-caryophyllene (15.1%), ß-pinene (13.3%), germacrene D (8.3%), pogostol (6.6%) and bicyclogermacrene (6.4%) in the leaves; and apiole (28.1%), pogostol (19.8%) and guaiol (11.2%) in the branches. The EQ of N. cuspidata leaves showed ß-caryophyllene (26.9%), bicyclogermacrene (16.0%) and spathulenol (5.2%) as the main compounds. The EOs were subjected to antibacterial screening and displayed promising activity against Escherichia coli (MIC = 19.5 µg.mL⁻¹). In addition, the EOs were tested for cytotoxic activity against MCF-7 breast tumor cells and the IC50 values were 64.5 ± 1.6 and 117.1 ± 11.9 µg.mL⁻¹ for the leaf EOs of N. puberula and N. cuspidata, respectively.

Optimization of Ultrasound-assisted Extraction of Phenolic Compounds from Myrcia amazonica DC. (Myrtaceae) Leaves.

BACKGROUND: Myrcia amazonica. DC is a species predominantly found in northern Brazil, and belongs to the Myrtaceae family, which possess various species used in folk medicine to treat gastrointestinal disorders, infectious diseases, and hemorrhagic conditions and are known for their essential oil contents. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This study aimed applied the Box-Behnken design combined with response surface methodology to optimize ultrasound-assisted extraction of total polyphenols, total tannins (TT), and total flavonoids (TF) from M. amazonica DC. RESULTS: The results indicated that the best conditions to obtain highest yields of TT were in lower levels of alcohol degree (65%), time (15 min), and also solid: Liquid ratio (solid to liquid ratio; 20 mg: 5 mL). The TF could be extracted with high amounts with higher extraction times (45 min), lower values of solid: Liquid ratio (20 mg: mL), and intermediate alcohol degree level. CONCLUSION: The exploitation of the natural plant resources present very important impact for the economic development, and also the valorization of great Brazilian biodiversity. The knowledge obtained from this work should be useful to further exploit and apply this raw material. SUMMARY: Myrcia amazonica leaves possess phenolic compounds with biological applications;Lower levels of ethanolic strength are more suitable to obtain a igher levels of phenolic compouds such as tannins;Box-Behnken design indicates to be useful to explore the best conditions of ultrasound assisted extraction. Abbreviation used: Nomenclature ES: Ethanolic strength, ET: Extraction time, SLR: Solid to liquid ratio, TFc: Total flavonoid contents, TPc: Total polyphenol contents, TTc: Total tannin contents.

Antibacterial action against food-borne microorganisms and antioxidant activity of carvacrol-rich oil from Lippia origanoides Kunth.

BACKGROUND: Lippia origanoides Kunth from Northeast Brazil is a plant of pleasant odor used by local people as a food seasoning in substitution the oregano where its carvacrol-rich oil has showed significant antimicrobial activity against human pathogens. METHODS: GC and GC-MS analyzed the plant oil composition and its antibacterial activity was evaluated by disk diffusion and microdilution broth methods. The determination of oil antioxidant activity was made by DPPH radical scavenging assay. Oil toxicity was performed on mice. RESULTS: The main constituents of the oil were carvacrol (47.2%), thymol (12.8%), p-cymene (9.7%), and p-methoxythymol (7.4%). The oil was active against the bacteria of Bacillus cereus, B. subtilis, and Salmonella typhimurium, except for Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The antioxidant activity has displayed a high dose-response (r(2) = 0.92), with the inhibition of DPPH radical from 15 to 82%, at concentrations from 5 to 50 µg/mL, and also by the ß-carotene bleaching assay, which showed a high inhibition of 85.2 ± 6.8 %, corresponding to about 80% of the inhibition of Trolox (93.4 ± 0.7%), used as a standard. The lethal dose (LD50) of the oil was determined in 1673.84 mg mL(-1). CONCLUSION: The results confirmed that the oil of L. origanoides could be utilized for the prevention of food bacterial growth, and as an antioxidative agent for retardation of food oxidation process. The oil has low toxicity, allowing its application in the food industry. Graphical Abstract Aerial parts of Lippia origanoides Kunth.

Antimicrobial and seasonal evaluation of the carvacrol-chemotype oil from Lippia origanoides kunth.

This study evaluated the influence of seasonal variation on the yield and composition of essential oil of Lippia origanoides occurring in the Middle Rio Amazonas, Brazil, and the impact on its antimicrobial potential. The average oil yield was 1.7% ± 0.2% in the rainy season and 1.6% ± 0.3% in the dry season. Some correlations with climatic parameters were observed. The major components were carvacrol (rainy, 43.5% ± 1.9%; dry, 41.4% ± 2.04%), thymol (rainy, 10.7% ± 1.1%; dry, 10.6% ± 0.9%), p-cymene (rainy, 9.8% ± 0.7%; dry, 10.0% ± 1.4%) and p-methoxythymol (rainy, 9.6% ± 0.8%; dry, 10.4% ± 1.4%). It was found that the antibacterial activity of L. origanoides against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli was little influenced by the changes in oil composition due to seasonal variation. Against S. aureus, the oil Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) value was 1.25 µL/mL over ten months. Against E. coli, the oil MIC values ranged from 0.15 µL/mL to 0.31 µL/mL in different months of the year. The Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) value was 2.5 µL/mL against S. aureus and 1.25 µL/mL against E. coli. The results suggest that the antimicrobial activity identified in the oil remain unchanged for the full year, allowing its medicinal use without any risk of loss or absence of the active principles of the plant.

Comparison of phylogeny, venom composition and neutralization by antivenom in diverse species of bothrops complex.

In Latin America, Bothrops snakes account for most snake bites in humans, and the recommended treatment is administration of multispecific Bothrops antivenom (SAB--soro antibotrópico). However, Bothrops snakes are very diverse with regard to their venom composition, which raises the issue of which venoms should be used as immunizing antigens for the production of pan-specific Bothrops antivenoms. In this study, we simultaneously compared the composition and reactivity with SAB of venoms collected from six species of snakes, distributed in pairs from three distinct phylogenetic clades: Bothrops, Bothropoides and Rhinocerophis. We also evaluated the neutralization of Bothrops atrox venom, which is the species responsible for most snake bites in the Amazon region, but not included in the immunization antigen mixture used to produce SAB. Using mass spectrometric and chromatographic approaches, we observed a lack of similarity in protein composition between the venoms from closely related snakes and a high similarity between the venoms of phylogenetically more distant snakes, suggesting little connection between taxonomic position and venom composition. P-III snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs) are the most antigenic toxins in the venoms of snakes from the Bothrops complex, whereas class P-I SVMPs, snake venom serine proteinases and phospholipases A2 reacted with antibodies in lower levels. Low molecular size toxins, such as disintegrins and bradykinin-potentiating peptides, were poorly antigenic. Toxins from the same protein family showed antigenic cross-reactivity among venoms from different species; SAB was efficient in neutralizing the B. atrox venom major toxins. Thus, we suggest that it is possible to obtain pan-specific effective antivenoms for Bothrops envenomations through immunization with venoms from only a few species of snakes, if these venoms contain protein classes that are representative of all species to which the antivenom is targeted.