Policies for type 2 diabetes and non-communicable disease management during the COVID-19 pandemic in Kenya and Tanzania: a desk review and views of decision-makers.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic caused disruptions in care that adversely affected the management of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) globally. Countries have responded in various ways to support people with NCDs during the pandemic. This study aimed to identify policy gaps, if any, in the management of NCDs, particularly diabetes, during COVID-19 in Kenya and Tanzania to inform recommendations for priority actions for NCD management during any future similar crises. METHODS: We undertook a desk review of pre-existing and newly developed national frameworks, policy models and guidelines for addressing NCDs including type 2 diabetes. This was followed by 13 key informant interviews with stakeholders involved in NCD decision-making: six in Kenya and seven in Tanzania. Thematic analysis was used to analyse the documents. RESULTS: Seventeen guidance documents were identified (Kenya=10; Tanzania=7). These included pre-existing and/or updated policies/strategic plans, guidelines, a letter, a policy brief and a report. Neither country had comprehensive policies/guidelines to ensure continuity of NCD care before the COVID-19 pandemic. However, efforts were made to update pre-existing documents and several more were developed during the pandemic to guide NCD care. Some measures were put in place during the COVID-19 period to ensure continuity of care for patients with NCDs such as longer supply of medicines. Inadequate attention was given to monitoring and evaluation and implementation issues. CONCLUSION: Kenya and Tanzania developed and updated some policies/guidelines to include continuity of care in emergencies. However, there were gaps in the documents and between policy/guideline documents and practice. Health systems need to establish disaster preparedness plans that integrate attention to NCD care to enable them to better handle severe disruptions caused by emergencies such as pandemics. Such guidance needs to include contingency planning to enable adequate resources for NCD care and must also address evaluation of implementation effectiveness.

Factors associated with COVID-19 vaccine uptake among people with type 2 diabetes in Kenya and Tanzania: a mixed-methods study.

BACKGROUND: People with type 2 diabetes (T2D) are at increased risk of poor outcomes from COVID-19. Vaccination can improve outcomes, but vaccine hesitancy remains a major challenge. We examined factors influencing COVID-19 vaccine uptake among people with T2D in two sub-Saharan Africa countries that adopted different national approaches to combat COVID-19, Kenya and Tanzania. METHODS: A mixed-methods study was conducted in February-March 2022, involving a survey of 1000 adults with T2D (500 Kenya; 500 Tanzania) and 51 in-depth interviews (21 Kenya; 30 Tanzania). Determinants of COVID-19 vaccine uptake were identified using a multivariate logistic regression model, while thematic content analysis explored barriers and facilitators. RESULTS: COVID-19 vaccine uptake was lower in Tanzania (26%) than in Kenya (75%), which may reflect an initial political hesitancy about vaccines in Tanzania. People with college/university education were four times more likely to be vaccinated than those with no education (Kenya AOR=4.25 (95% CI 1.00 to 18.03), Tanzania AOR=4.07 (1.03 to 16.12)); and people with health insurance were almost twice as likely to be vaccinated than those without health insurance (Kenya AOR=1.70 (1.07 to 2.70), Tanzania AOR=1.81 (1.04 to 3.13)). Vaccine uptake was higher in older people in Kenya, and among those with more comorbidities and higher socioeconomic status in Tanzania. Interviewees reported that wanting protection from severe illness promoted vaccine uptake, while conflicting information, misinformation and fear of side-effects limited uptake. CONCLUSION: COVID-19 vaccine uptake among people with T2D was suboptimal, particularly in Tanzania, where initial political hesitancy had a negative impact. Policy-makers must develop strategies to reduce fear and misconceptions, especially among those who are less educated, uninsured and younger.

"I see salt everywhere": A qualitative examination of the utility of arts-based participatory workshops to study noncommunicable diseases in Tanzania and Malawi.

The burden of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) including hypertension, diabetes, and cancer, is rising in Sub-Saharan African countries like Tanzania and Malawi. This increase reflects complex interactions between diverse social, environmental, biological, and political factors. To intervene successfully, new approaches are therefore needed to understand how local knowledges and attitudes towards common NCDs influence health behaviours. This study compares the utility of using a novel arts-based participatory method and more traditional focus groups to generate new understandings of local knowledges, attitudes, and behaviours towards NCDs and their risk factors. Single-gender arts-based participatory workshops and focus group discussions were conducted with local communities in Tanzania and Malawi. Thematic analysis compared workshop and focus group transcripts for depth of content and researcher-participant hierarchies. In addition, semiotic analysis examined the contribution of photographs of workshop activities to understanding participants' experiences and beliefs about NCD risk factors. The arts-based participatory workshops produced in-depth, vivid, emotive narratives of participants' beliefs about NCDs and their impact (e.g., "… it spreads all over your body and kills you-snake's poison is similar to diabetes poison"), while the focus groups provided more basic accounts (e.g., "diabetes is a fast killer"). The workshops also empowered participants to navigate activities with autonomy, revealing their almost overwhelmingly negative beliefs about NCDs. However, enabling participants to direct the focus of workshop activities led to challenges, including the perpetuation of stigma (e.g., comparing smells associated with diabetes symptoms with sewage). Semiotic analysis of workshop photographs provided little additional insight beyond that gained from the transcripts. Arts-based participatory workshops are promising as a novel method to inform development of culturally relevant approaches to NCD prevention in Tanzania and Malawi. Future research should incorporate more structured opportunities for participant reflection during the workshops to minimise harm from any emerging stigma.

Governance factors that affect the implementation of health financing reforms in Tanzania: an exploratory study of stakeholders' perspectives.

The development of effective and inclusive health financing reforms is crucial for the progressive realisation of universal health coverage in low-income and middle-income countries. Tanzania has been reforming health financing policies to expand health insurance coverage and achieve better access to quality healthcare for all. Recent reforms have included improved community health funds (iCHFs), and others are underway to implement a mandatory national health insurance scheme in order to expand access to services and improve financial risk protection. Governance is a crucial structural determinant for the successful implementation of health financing reforms, however there is little understanding of the governance elements that hinder the implementation of health financing reforms such as the iCHF in Tanzania. Therefore, this study used the perspectives of health sector stakeholders to explore governance factors that influence the implementation of health financing reforms in Tanzania. We interviewed 36 stakeholders including implementers of health financing reforms, policymakers and health insurance beneficiaries in the regions of Dodoma, Dar es Salaam and Kilimanjaro. Normalisation process theory and governance elements guided the structure of the in-depth interviews and analysis. Governance factors that emerged from participants as facilitators included a shared strategic vision for a single mandatory health insurance, community engagement and collaboration with diverse stakeholders in the implementation of health financing policies and enhanced monitoring of iCHF enrolment due to digitisation of registration process. Governance factors that emerged as barriers to the implementation were a lack of transparency, limited involvement of the private sector in service delivery, weak accountability for revenues generated from community level and limited resources due to iCHF design. If stakeholders do not address the governance factors that hinder the implementation of health financing reforms, then current efforts to expand health insurance coverage are unlikely to succeed on their own.

Arts-based approaches to promoting health in sub-Saharan Africa: a scoping review.

INTRODUCTION: Arts-based approaches to health promotion have been used widely across sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), particularly in public health responses to HIV/AIDS. Such approaches draw on deep-rooted historical traditions of indigenous groups in combination with imported traditions which emerged from colonial engagement. To date, no review has sought to map the locations, health issues, art forms and methods documented by researchers using arts-based approaches in SSA. METHODS: Using scoping review methodology, 11 databases spanning biomedicine, arts and humanities and social sciences were searched. Researchers screened search results for papers using predefined criteria. Papers included in the review were read and summarised using a standardised proforma. Descriptive statistics were produced to characterise the location of the studies, art forms used or discussed, and the health issues addressed, and to determine how best to summarise the literature identified. RESULTS: Searches identified a total of 59 794 records, which reduced to 119 after screening. We identified literature representing 30 (62.5%) of the 48 countries in the SSA region. The papers covered 16 health issues. The majority (84.9%) focused on HIV/AIDS-related work, with Ebola (5.0%) and malaria (3.3%) also receiving attention. Most studies used a single art form (79.0%), but a significant number deployed multiple forms (21.0%). Theatre-based approaches were most common (43.7%), followed by music and song (22.6%), visual arts (other) (9.2%), storytelling (7.6%) and film (5.0%). CONCLUSIONS: Arts-based approaches have been widely deployed in health promotion in SSA, particularly in response to HIV/AIDS. Historically and as evidenced by this review, arts-based approaches have provided a platform to facilitate enquiry, achieved significant reach and in some instances supported demonstrable health-related change. Challenges relating to content, power relations and evaluation have been reported. Future research should focus on broadening application to other conditions, such as non-communicable diseases, and on addressing challenges raised in research to date.

Linking gender, extramarital affairs, and HIV: a mixed methods study on contextual determinants of extramarital affairs in rural Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Extramarital sex is a potential driver of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) transmission for long-term couples in sub-Saharan Africa. It is increasingly recognized that preventing sexual risk behaviours requires an understanding and adjustment of sexual relationship factors beyond the individual level. We investigated the association between extramarital affairs and HIV status, factors associated with extramarital affairs, and created insights in the context and pathways for married men and women in rural Tanzania who engage in extramarital affairs. METHODS: A cross-sectional sequential explanatory mixed method design was employed. The WHO-Social determinants of health perspective guided the study. Using logistic regression, we analysed the MZIMA project community surveillance representative sample of 3884 married partners aged 15+ residing in Ifakara town, Tanzania (2012-2013). Multinomial logistic regression analysis established the relative risk ratio (RRR) of different social and economic factors with lifetime (proxy) and recent (12 months prior to survey) extramarital affairs. Logistic regression analysis determined the association between extramarital affairs and HIV status. Semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions explored the quantitative findings, capturing the experiences and norms regarding extramarital affairs. RESULTS: We found a significant association between lifetime (proxy) extramarital affairs and HIV infection among women only. The RRR of having extramarital affairs (lifetime proxy) was significantly higher among Village Community Bank (VICOBA) members, the re-married, consumers of alcohol, those from southern regions, non-Muslims, and those with older age. In the case of recent extramarital affairs (12 months prior to survey), associations were significant for the same variables except for religion, having an income was also associated with the outcome. Qualitative narratives reflected that, desire to prove manhood (masculinity) supported by societal normative beliefs such as; 'it is not realistic for a man to stay without extramarital partner' and religious beliefs; 'a man shall dominate a woman' encouraged men's extramarital affairs. For women, striving for financial autonomy, obligations to pay back debts borrowed from several VICOBA, and limited support from their husbands encouraged their engagement in extramarital affairs. Low relationship quality (conflict and sexual dissatisfaction) were reported to encourage both men and women's extramarital affairs. CONCLUSIONS: The findings show that the link between extramarital affairs and HIV has a gender dimension in which women are more likely to acquire HIV through extramarital affairs (case of recent extramarital affairs (12 months prior to survey). Future programs seeking to address risk sexual behaviors in Tanzanian marriages can consider context-sensitive interventions which address aspects beyond 'individual risk' and women's financial uncertainties, and include couple's relationship quality, excessive alcohol behaviors, normative masculinity ideology and societal norms, that encourage women's economic dependence and men's engagement in multiple sexual partnerships. Microfinance projects (e.g. VICOBA) could be a platform for gender-transformative approaches, combining economic empowerment and HIV risk protection strategies.

Prevalence and social drivers of HIV among married and cohabitating heterosexual adults in south-eastern Tanzania: analysis of adult health community cohort data.

BACKGROUND: In sub-Saharan Africa, the prevalence of HIV among married and cohabiting couples is substantial. Information about the underlying social drivers of HIV transmission in couples is critical for the development of structural approaches to HIV prevention, but not readily available. We explored the association between social drivers, practices, and HIV status among stable couples in Ifakara, Tanzania. DESIGN: Using a cross-sectional design, we analyzed data from a sample of 3,988 married or cohabiting individuals, aged 15 years and older from the MZIMA adult health community cohort study of 2013. Sociodemographic factors (sex, income, age, and education), gender norms (perceived acceptability for a wife to ask her partner to use a condom when she knows he is HIV positive), marriage characteristics (being in a monogamous or a polygamous marriage, being remarried), sexual behavior practices (lifetime number of sexual partners and concurrent sexual partners), health system factors (ever used voluntary HIV counseling and testing), and lifestyle patterns (alcohol use) were used to explore the odds of being HIV positive, with 95% confidence intervals. RESULTS: Prevalence of HIV/AIDS was 6.7% (5.9% males and 7.1% females). Gender norms, that is, perception that a woman is not justified to ask her husband to use a condom even when she knows he has a disease (adjusted odds ratio AOR=1.51, 95% CI 1.06-2.17), marital characteristics, that is, being remarried (AOR=1.49, 95% CI 1.08-2.04), and sexual behavior characteristics, that is, lifetime number of sexual partners (2-4: AOR=1.47, 95% CI 1.02-2.11; 5+: AOR=1.61, 95% CI 1.05-2.47) were the main independent predictors of HIV prevalence. CONCLUSIONS: Among married or cohabiting individuals, the key social drivers/practices that appeared to make people more vulnerable for HIV are gender norms, marriage characteristics (being remarried), and sexual behavior practices (lifetime number of sexual partners). Married and cohabiting couples are an important target group for HIV prevention efforts in Tanzania. In addition to individual interventions, structural interventions are needed to address the gender norms, remarriage, and sexual practices that shape differential vulnerability to HIV in stable couples.

Social cognitive determinants of HIV voluntary counselling and testing uptake among married individuals in Dar es Salaam Tanzania: Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB).

BACKGROUND: Cumulative evidence indicates increasing HIV infection among married individuals. Voluntary Counselling and Testing for HIV (HCT) is known to be an effective intervention to induce safer sex behaviour and access to early treatment, care and support among married individuals, which are important for HIV prevention. In this context, knowledge of factors associated with HCT uptake among married individuals is critical in promoting the use of the services. This study therefore intended to identify the social cognitive factors associated with acceptance of HCT among married individuals. METHODS: In a cross-sectional analytical study face to face questionnaires were administered among 200 randomly selected married individuals in Kinondoni district, Dar es Salaam Tanzania. The questionnaire included self-reported HCT, socio-demographic variables and social cognitive variables (attitude, subjective norms, perceived control and perceived risk). Logistic regression was used to identify the independent association of social cognitive predictors of HCT among married individuals. RESULTS: Nearly half (42%) of the respondents had never had HCT. Of the social cognitive constructs, the strongest predictor of HCT uptake was attitude (OR per additional score point = 1.07, 95% CI 1.04-1.10) followed by perceived behavioural control (OR = 1.04, 95% CI 1.02-1.06). Subjective norm and perceived risk were not associated with HCT uptake. CONCLUSION: Public health interventions targeting married individuals should be designed to enhance their positive attitude towards HCT and empower them to overcome barriers to the use of the services.