Three-Dimensional Ultrastructure of Flower-Spray Nerve Endings in the Rat Carotid Sinus.

The flower-spray nerve endings are afferent nerve terminals in the carotid sinus that arise from carotid sinus nerve of glossopharyngeal nerve. However, the three-dimensional ultrastructural characteristics of flower-spray nerve endings and spatial relationships between the terminal parts and other cellular elements have not been fully understood. To elucidate their detailed relationship, backscattered electron imaging of serial sections was performed with a scanning electron microscope to produce a three-dimensional reconstruction of the flower-spray endings. The terminal parts of flower-spray endings were distributed horizontally approximately 5 µm outside the external elastic membrane in the tunica adventitia of the internal carotid artery. The three-dimensional reconstruction showed that the terminal parts of flower-spray endings were flat with irregular contours and were partially covered by the thin cytoplasmic processes of Schwann cells. The complex consisting of the nerve terminals and associated Schwann cells was surrounded by a multilayered basement membrane. The terminal parts of the endings were also surrounded by fibroblasts with elastic fibers and collagen fibrils. Secretory vesicles without an electron-dense core were observed in the terminal parts of the endings. The accumulation of vesicles just below the axonal membrane was observed in terminal parts not covered by Schwann cell cytoplasmic processes on both the luminal and basal sides. Swollen mitochondria, concentric membranous structures, and glycogen granule-like electron-dense materials were often noted in some of the terminal parts of the endings and the parent axon. Collectively, the present results suggest that flower-spray endings are baroreceptors because their morphology was similar to other mechanoreceptors. Furthermore, flower-spray endings may be affected by glutamate secreted in an autocrine manner.

Immunohistochemical localization of P2Y12 purinoceptors in the rat carotid body.

The present study investigated the localization of the adenosine 5'-diphosphate (ADP)-selective P2Y12 purinoceptors in the rat carotid body using multilabeling immunofluorescence. Punctate immunoreactive products for P2Y12 were distributed in chemoreceptive type I cells immunoreactive to vesicular nucleotide transporter (VNUT) or dopamine beta-hydroxylase, but not in S100B-immunoreactive glial-like type II cells. P2Y12 immunoreactivity was localized in cell clusters containing VNUT-immunoreactive type I cells surrounded by the perinuclear cytoplasm and cytoplasmic processes of type II cells immunoreactive for ectonucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase 2 (NTPDase2) and NTPDase3, which hydrolyze extracellular nucleotide tri- and/or di-phosphates. In ATP bioluminescence assays using carotid bodies, the degradation of extracellular ATP was attenuated in the presence of the selective NTPDases inhibitor ARL67156, suggesting ATP-degrading activity by NTPDases in the tissue. These results suggest that ATP released from type I cells is degraded into ADP and adenosine 5'-monophosphate by NTPDases expressed in type II cells, and that ADP modulates type I cells via P2Y12 purinoceptors.

Morphological Analysis of the Olfactory System of the Pig-Nosed Turtle, Carettochelys insculpta.

The turtle olfactory organ consists of the upper (UCE) and lower (LCE) chamber epithelium, projecting to the ventral and dorsal parts of the olfactory bulbs, respectively. The UCE is associated with glands, contains ciliated olfactory receptor neurons, and is assumed to detect odorants primarily in air, while the LCE is devoid of glands, contains microvillous olfactory receptor neurons, and is assumed to detect odorants primarily in water. Examining the olfactory system of the pig-nosed turtle, Carettochelys insculpta, this study found that both the upper and lower chambers of the nasal cavity were lined with sensory epithelium devoid of associated glands and contained ciliated olfactory receptor neurons. Moreover, the olfactory bulbs were not divided into dorsal and ventral parts. These results suggest that the olfactory system of the pig-nosed turtle is a single system specialized for detecting odorants in water.

In situ hybridization analysis of odorant receptor expression in the olfactory organ of the pig-nosed turtle Carettochelys insculpta.

The turtle olfactory organ consists of upper (UCE) and lower (LCE) chamber epithelium, which send axons to the ventral and dorsal portions of the olfactory bulbs, respectively. Generally, the UCE is associated with glands and contains ciliated olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs), while the LCE is devoid of glands and contains microvillous ORNs. However, the olfactory organ of the pig-nosed turtle Carettochelys insculpta appears to be a single olfactory system morphologically: there are no associated glands; ciliated ORNs are distributed throughout the olfactory organ; and the olfactory bulb is not divided into ventral and dorsal portions. In this study, we analyzed the expression of odorant receptors (ORs), the major olfactory receptors in turtles, in the pig-nosed turtle olfactory organ, via in situ hybridization. Of 690 ORs, 375 were classified as class I and 315 as class II. Some class II ORs were expressed predominantly in the posterior dorsomedial walls of the nasal cavity, while other class II ORs and all class I ORs examined were expressed in the remaining region. These results suggest that the pig-nosed turtle olfactory organ can be divided into two regions according to the expression of ORs.

Three-dimensional architecture of the subepithelial corpuscular nerve ending in the rat epiglottis reconstructed by array tomography with scanning electron microscopy.

In the rat laryngeal mucosa, subepithelial corpuscular nerve endings, called laminar nerve endings, are distributed in the epiglottis and arytenoid region and are activated by the pressure changes of the laryngeal cavity. They are also suggested to play a role in efferent regulation because of secretory vesicles in the axoplasm. In the present study, the laminar nerve endings in the rat laryngeal mucosa were analyzed by 3D reconstruction from serial ultrathin sections in addition to immunohistochemistry for synapsin 1. In the light microscopy, synapsin 1-immunoreactive flattened or bulbous terminal parts of the laminar endings were also immunoreactive with VGLUT1, and were surrounded by S100- or S100B-immunoreactive Schwann cells and vimentin-immunoreactive fibroblasts. In the electron microscopy, 3D reconstruction views showed that laminar endings were composed of flattened terminal parts sized 2-5 µm in longitudinal length, overlapping in three to five multiple layers. The terminal parts of the endings were incompletely wrapped by flat cytoplasmic processes of the Schwann cells. In addition, the fibroblast network surrounded the complex of nerve endings and the Schwann cells. Several terminal parts entered through the basement membrane into the epithelial layer and attached to the basal epithelial cells, suggesting that interaction between epithelial cells and laminar nerve endings plays an important role in sensing the pressure changes in the laryngeal cavity. Secretory vesicles were unevenly distributed throughout the terminal part of the laminar nerve endings. The secretory vesicles were frequently observed in the peripheral limb of the terminal parts. It suggests that the laminar nerve endings in the larynx may release glutamate to maintain continuous discharge during the stretching of the laryngeal mucosa.

Expression patterns of the transcription factors Fezf1, Fezf2, and Bcl11b in the olfactory organs of turtle embryos.

Many tetrapod vertebrates have two distinct olfactory organs, the olfactory epithelium (OE) and vomeronasal organ (VNO). In turtles, the olfactory organ consists of two types of sensory epithelia, the upper chamber epithelium (UCE; corresponding to the OE) and the lower chamber epithelium (LCE; corresponding to the VNO). In many turtle species, the UCE contains ciliated olfactory receptor cells (ORCs) and the LCE contains microvillous ORCs. To date, several transcription factors involved in the development of the OE and VNO have been identified in mammals. Fez family zinc-finger protein 1 and 2 (Fezf1 and 2) are expressed in the OE and VNO, respectively, of mouse embryos, and are involved in the development and maintenance of ORCs. B-cell lymphoma/leukemia 11B (Bcl11b) is expressed in the mouse embryo OE except the dorsomedial parts of the nasal cavity, and regulates the expression of odorant receptors in the ORCs. In this study, we examined the expression of Fezf1, Fezf2, and Bcl11b in the olfactory organs of embryos in three turtle species, Pelodiscus sinensis, Trachemys scripta elegans, and Centrochelys sulcata, to evaluate their involvement in the development of reptile olfactory organs. In all three turtle species, Bcl11b was expressed in the UCE, Fezf2 in the LCE, and Fezf1 in both the UCE and LCE. These results imply that the roles of the transcription factors Fezf1, Fezf2, and Bcl11b in olfactory organ development are conserved among mammals and turtles.

Expression of type 1 vomeronasal receptors in the olfactory organ of the African lungfish, Protopterus dolloi.

The vomeronasal organ is an olfactory organ found in amphibians and higher vertebrates. Type 1 vomeronasal receptors, one of the major olfactory receptors in vertebrates, are expressed in the vomeronasal organ in mammals. In amphibians and fish, they are expressed in the olfactory epithelium. The lungfish, which is the species of fish most closely related to amphibians, has a primitive vomeronasal organ: the recess epithelium. Expression of type 1 vomeronasal receptors has been reported in both the olfactory epithelium and the recess epithelium in three species of African lungfish and one species of South American lungfish. However, a previous study suggested that in the African lungfish Protopterus dolloi these receptors are expressed only in the olfactory epithelium. In this study, we identified 21 type 1 vomeronasal receptor genes in P. dolloi and examined the expression sites in the olfactory organ. In P. dolloi, most cells expressing the type 1 vomeronasal receptor were distributed in the olfactory epithelium, but a few were also found in the recess epithelium. This implies that the functions of the olfactory epithelium and the primitive vomeronasal organ are incompletely separated, and that all extant African and South American lungfish share this trait.

Immunohistochemical analysis of glutamatergic and serotonergic signaling pathways in chemosensory cell clusters in the pharynx and larynx of rats.

The present study examined cellular components and the localization of vesicular glutamate transporter (VGLUT) 1 and 2 and serotonin (5-HT) in chemosensory cell clusters in the rat pharynx and larynx. Triple immunolabeling for guanine nucleotide-binding protein G (t), subunit ⍺3 (GNAT3) and nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase 2 (NTPDase2) with synaptotagmin-1 (Syt1) revealed NTPDase2-immunoreactive type I-like cells in addition to GNAT3-immunoreactive type II-like and Syt1-immunoreactive type III-like cells in pharyngolaryngeal chemosensory cell clusters. Therefore, these clusters appear to comprise similar cell types to those in the lingual taste buds with slight morphological modifications. An immunofluorescence analysis of VGLUT1 or VGLUT2 and GNAT3 with P2X3 purinoceptors revealed that VGLUTs co-localized to P2X3-immunoreactive spherical nerve terminals closely associated with GNAT3-immunoreactive type II-like cells. Moreover, triple immunolabeling for Syt1/synaptosomal-associated protein, 25 kDa (SNAP25) and P2X3 with VGLUT1 or VGLUT2 revealed punctate immunoreactive products for VGLUT1 and VGLUT2 within P2X3-immunoreactive flat axon terminals wrapped around Syt1/SNAP25-immunoreactive type III-like cells. The afferent nerve fibers innervating cell clusters may contain glutamate and release it by exocytosis. On the other hand, immunoreactive products for 5-HT and dopa decarboxylase were detected in Syt1-immunoreactive cells, indicating the release of 5-HT by these cells. The present results suggest that chemosensory cell clusters in the pharynx and larynx may be modulated by intrinsic glutamate and 5-HT.

In situ hybridization analysis of olfactory receptor expression in the sea turtle olfactory organ.

The olfactory organ of turtles consists of an upper chamber epithelium (UCE) with associated glands, and a lower chamber epithelium (LCE) devoid of glands. The UCE and LCE are referred to as the air-nose and the water-nose, respectively, because the UCE is thought to detect airborne odorants, while the LCE detects waterborne odorants. However, it is not clear how the two are used in the olfactory organ. Odorant receptors (ORs) are the major olfactory receptors in turtles; they are classified as class I and II ORs, distinguished by their primary structure. Class I ORs are suggested to be receptive to water-soluble ligands and class II ORs to volatile ligands. This study analyzed the expression of class I and II ORs in hatchlings of the green sea turtle, Chelonia mydas, through in situ hybridization, to determine the localization of OR-expressing cells in the olfactory organ. Class I OR-expressing cells were distributed mainly in the LCE, implying that the LCE is receptive to waterborne odorants. Class II OR-expressing cells were distributed in both the UCE and LCE, implying that the entire olfactory organ is receptive to airborne odorants. The widespread expression of class II ORs may increase opportunities for sea turtles to sense airborne odorants.

Immunohistochemical distribution of Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II subunits in the rat carotid body.

Carotid body (CB) activity stimulated by a lower partial oxygen pressure in rats is enhanced by exposure to chronic intermittent hypoxia. However, the mechanisms that modulate CB activity remain unclear. In the present study, the expression and distribution of one of the candidate molecules to modulate reactivity, Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) were examined in the rat CB using reverse transcriptional polymerase chain reaction and immunofluorescence with isoform-specific antibodies. CaMKIIγ and CaMKIIδ were distributed in CB chemoreceptor cells, and exhibited intense immunoreactivity in dopamine ß-hydroxylase-positive chemoreceptor cells. CaMKIIß and CaMKIIγ were distributed in sensory nerve endings attached to chemoreceptor cells of the CB. In the petrosal ganglion, immunoreactivities for CaMKIIα, CaMKIIß, CaMKIIγ, and CaMKIIδ were detected in the perinuclear region of ganglion cells. The present results indicate that CaMKIIγ and CaMKIIδ in chemoreceptor cells and CaMKIIß and CaMKIIγ in sensory nerve endings enhanced reciprocal synaptic transmission, i.e., noradrenaline and ATP for cells to neurons and glutamate for neurons to cells.

Plastic loss of motile cilia in the gills of Polypterus in response to high CO2 or terrestrial environments.

The evolutionary transition of vertebrates from water to land during the Devonian period was accompanied by major changes in animal respiratory systems in terms of physiology and morphology. Indeed, the fossil record of the early tetrapods has revealed the existence of internal gills, which are vestigial fish-like traits used underwater. However, the fossil record provides only limited data on the process of the evolutionary transition of gills from fish to early tetrapods. This study investigated the gills of Polypterus senegalus, a basal ray-finned/amphibious fish which shows many ancestral features of stem Osteichthyes. Based on scanning electron microscopy observations and transcriptome analysis, the existence of motile cilia in the gills was revealed which may create a flow on the gill surface leading to efficient ventilation or remove particles from the surface. Interestingly, these cilia were observed to disappear after rearing in terrestrial or high CO2 environments, which mimics the environmental changes in the Devonian period. The cilia re-appeared after being returned to the original aquatic environment. The ability of plastic changes of gills in Polypterus revealed in this study may allow them to survive in fluctuating environments, such as shallow swamps. The ancestor of Osteichthyes is expected to have possessed such plasticity in the gills, which may be one of the driving forces behind the transition of vertebrates from water to land.

Type 1 vomeronasal receptor expression in juvenile and adult lungfish olfactory organ.

Lungfish are the most closely related fish to tetrapods. The olfactory organ of lungfish contains lamellae and abundant recesses at the base of lamellae. Based on the ultrastructural and histochemical characteristics, the lamellar olfactory epithelium (OE), covering the surface of lamellae, and the recess epithelium, contained in the recesses, are thought to correspond to the OE of teleosts and the vomeronasal organ (VNO) of tetrapods. With increasing body size, the recesses increase in number and distribution range in the olfactory organ. In tetrapods, the expression of olfactory receptors is different between the OE and VNO; for instance, the type 1 vomeronasal receptor (V1R) is expressed only in the OE in amphibians and mainly in the VNO in mammals. We recently reported that V1R-expressing cells are contained mainly in the lamellar OE but also rarely in the recess epithelium in the olfactory organ of lungfish of approximately 30 cm body length. However, it is unclear whether the distribution of V1R-expressing cells in the olfactory organ varies during development. In this study, we compared the expression of V1Rs in the olfactory organs between juveniles and adults of the African lungfish Protopterus aethiopicus and South American lungfish, Lepidosiren paradoxa. The density of V1R-expressing cells was higher in the lamellae than in the recesses in all specimens evaluated, and this pattern was more pronounced in juveniles than adults. In addition, the juveniles showed a higher density of V1R-expressing cells in the lamellae compared with the adults. Our results imply that differences in lifestyle between juveniles and adults are related to differences in the density of V1R-expressing cells in the lamellae of lungfish.

Type 1 vomeronasal receptors expressed in the olfactory organs of two African lungfish, Protopterus annectens and Protopterus amphibius.

Lungfish are the fish related most closely to tetrapods. The olfactory organ of lungfish contains two distinct sensory epithelia: the lamellar olfactory epithelium (OE) and the recess epithelium (RecE). Based on their ultrastructural and histological characteristics, the lamellar OE and the RecE are considered to correspond respectively to the teleost OE and a primitive vomeronasal organ (VNO). In tetrapods, the OE and VNO have been shown to express different families of olfactory receptors; for example, in mammals, the OE expresses odorant receptors and trace amine-associated receptors, while the VNO expresses type 1 (V1Rs) and type 2 (V2Rs) vomeronasal receptors. In the present study, we examined the expression of V1Rs in the olfactory organs of two African lungfish, Protopterus annectens and Protopterus amphibius. RNA sequencing and phylogenetic analyses identified 29 V1R genes in P. annectens and 50 V1R genes in P. amphibius. Most V1Rs identified in these lungfish were classified as the tetrapod-type V1Rs initially found in tetrapods and distinct from fish-type V1Rs. In teleost, which all lack a VNO, all olfactory receptors are expressed in the OE, while in Xenopus V1Rs are expressed exclusively in the OE, and not in the VNO. In situ hybridization analysis indicated that lungfish V1Rs were expressed mainly in the lamellar OE and rarely in the RecE. These results imply that V1R expression in lungfish represents an intermediate step toward the complete segregation of V1R expression between the OE and VNO, reflecting the phylogenetic position of lungfish between teleosts and amphibians.

Distribution of proteins for synaptic release in nerve endings associated with the trachealis muscle of rats.

The immunohistochemical localization of proteins for synaptic release was examined in smooth muscle-associated sensory nerve endings using whole-mount preparations of the rat trachea. Plant-like smooth muscle-associated nerve endings with immunoreactivity for Na+-K+-ATPase, α3-subunit were identified in the trachealis muscle. VGLUT1, synapsin1, t-SNARE proteins (SNAP25 and syntaxin1), v-SNARE proteins (VAMP1 and VAMP2), and a presynaptic active zone-related protein (piccolo) were detected in the terminal parts of these endings. These results suggest that smooth muscle-associated nerve endings secrete glutamate to modulate sensorimotor functions in the lung deflation reflex.

Immunohistochemical localization of vesicular nucleotide transporter in small intensely fluorescent (SIF) cells of the rat superior cervical ganglion.

Our previous study reported that a part of small intensely fluorescent (SIF) cells in the rat superior cervical ganglion were innervated by P2X3 purinoceptor-expressing glossopharyngeal sensory nerve endings, suggesting the occurrence of adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP)-mediated transmission between them. The present study investigated the immunolocalization of vesicular nucleotide transporter (VNUT) in SIF cells of the superior cervical ganglion in male Wistar rats. VNUT was immunohistochemically localized in tyrosine hydroxylase-immunoreactive SIF cells and sympathetic postganglionic neurons, but not in a few SIF cells with immunoreactivity for dopamine beta-hydroxylase. P2X3-immunoreactive ramified nerve endings formed flat leaf-like or spherical terminal parts to surround some VNUT-immunoreactive SIF cells, but not other VNUT-immunoreactive SIF cells attached to ganglionic neurons. VNUT-immunoreactive SIF cells contained bassoon-immunoreactive products at the contacting surface of P2X3-immunoreactive nerve endings. Immunoreactivity for ectonucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase 2, which hydrolyzes extracellular ATP, was observed in S100B-immunoreactive satellite glial cells surrounding VNUT-immunoreactive SIF cells, but not in the attachment surfaces between SIF cells and nerve endings with P2X3 immunoreactivity. The present results suggest that SIF cells release ATP by exocytosis to modulate the excitability of sensory nerve endings and postganglionic neurons in the superior cervical ganglion.

Distribution of recesses in the olfactory organ of African lungfish Protopterus aethiopicus.

In the olfactory organ of lungfish, recesses at the bases of lamellae comprise sensory and nonsensory epithelia. The sensory epithelium of the recesses, the recess epithelium, is distinguished from the olfactory epithelium covering the lamella by the absence of ciliated olfactory receptor cells. Therefore, it has been suggested that the recess epithelium is a primordium of the vomeronasal organ of tetrapods. However, developmental changes in the number and distribution of recesses in the olfactory organ of lungfish were unknown. We examined four Protopterus aethiopicus specimens of body lengths 215-800 mm to determine the localization of recesses in their olfactory organs. Histological examination showed recesses at the bases of lamellae in all individuals examined. The recesses were localized mainly in the medial and caudal parts of the olfactory organs, especially in juveniles. Compared to smaller fish, larger fish had a larger number of recesses, distributed more broadly in their olfactory organs. Significance of the recess localization and its relationship to the function of lungfish olfactory organ warrants further investigation.

Effects of CO2 on time-dependent changes in cardiorespiratory functions under sustained hypoxia.

Hypercapnia in addition to hypoxia affects the mammalian cardiorespiratory system and has been suggested to exert its effects on cardiorespiratory function by slightly different mechanisms to hypoxia. In the present study, we examined cardiorespiratory changes in urethane-anesthetized rats under hypocapnic (Hypo, 10% O2), isocapnic (Iso, 10% O2 and 4% CO2), and hypercapnic (Hyper, 10% O2 and 8% CO2) hypoxia for 2 h to clarify the effects of CO2 on sustained hypoxia-induced cardiorespiratory responses. Respiratory frequency increased the most in Hypo and tidal volume in Hyper. Minute ventilation, a product of respiratory frequency and tidal volume, increased the most in the latter group. Regarding cardiovascular variables during the hypoxic exposure period, heart rate and mean blood pressure both markedly decreased in Hypo. However, decreases in these parameters were small in Iso, and both increased over the pre-exposure level in Hyper. The present results suggest that CO2 interferes with the hypoxia-activated neural pathway via another pathway under sustained exposure to hypoxia.

Immunohistochemical distribution of proteins involved in glutamate release in subepithelial sensory nerve endings of rat epiglottis.

To elucidate the efferent functions of sensory nerve endings, the distribution of calretinin and vesicular glutamate transporter 1 (VGLUT1) in laryngeal laminar nerve endings and the immunohistochemical distribution of proteins associated with synaptic vesicle release, i.e., t-SNARE (SNAP25 and syntaxin 1), v-SNARE (VAMP1 and VAMP2), synaptotagmin 1 (Syt1), bassoon, and piccolo, were examined. Subepithelial laminar nerve endings immunoreactive for Na+-K+-ATPase α3-subunit (NKAα3) were largely distributed in the whole-mount preparation of the epiglottic mucosa, and several endings were also immunoreactive for calretinin. VGLUT1 immunoreactivity was observed within terminal part near the outline of the small processes of NKAα3-immunoreactive nerve ending. SNAP25, syntaxin 1, and VAMP1 immunoreactivities were detected in terminal parts of calretinin-immunoreactive endings, whereas VAMP2 immunoreactivity was only observed in a few terminals. Terminal parts immunoreactive for calretinin and/or VGLUT1 also exhibited immunoreactivities for Syt1, Ca2+ sensor for membrane trafficking, and for bassoon and piccolo, presynaptic scaffold proteins. The presence of vesicular release-related proteins, including SNARE proteins, in the terminals of laryngeal laminar endings indicate that intrinsic glutamate modulates their afferent activity in an autocrine-like manner.

Morphology of GNAT3-immunoreactive chemosensory cells in the nasal cavity and pharynx of the rat.

Solitary chemosensory cells and chemosensory cell clusters are distributed in the pharynx and larynx. In the present study, the morphology and reflexogenic function of solitary chemosensory cells and chemosensory cell clusters in the nasal cavity and pharynx were examined using immunofluorescence for GNAT3 and electrophysiology. In the nasal cavity, GNAT3-immunoreactive solitary chemosensory cells were widely distributed in the nasal mucosa, particularly in the cranial region near the nostrils. Solitary chemosensory cells were also observed in the nasopharynx. Solitary chemosensory cells in the nasopharyngeal cavity were barrel like or slender in shape with long lateral processes within the epithelial layer to attach surrounding ciliated epithelial cells. Chemosensory cell clusters containing GNAT3-immunoreactive cells were also detected in the pharynx. GNAT3-immunoreactive cells gathered with SNAP25-immunoreactive cells in chemosensory clusters. GNAT3-immunoreactive chemosensory cells were in close contact with a few SP- or CGRP-immunoreactive nerve endings. In the pharynx, GNAT3-immunoreactive chemosensory cells were also attached to P2X3-immunoreactive nerve endings. Physiologically, the perfusion of 10 mM quinine hydrochloride (QHCl) solution induced ventilatory depression. The QHCl-induced reflex was diminished by bilateral section of the glossopharyngeal nerve, suggesting autonomic reflex were evoked by chemosensory cells in pharynx but not in nasal mucosa. The present results indicate that complex shape of nasopharyngeal solitary chemosensory cells may contribute to intercellular communication, and pharyngeal chemosensory cells may play a role in respiratory depression.

Morphological characterization of brush cells in the rat trachea.

Brush cells have recently been classified as solitary chemosensory cells. However, tracheal brush cells have not been morphologically and immunohistochemically characterized yet. In the present study, the morphological and immunohistochemical characteristics of tracheal brush cells were analyzed using immunohistochemistry and scanning, and transmission electron microscopies. Brush cells in the tracheal epithelium were barrel-like or columnar in shape and were immunoreactive for villin. Scanning and transmission electron microscopies revealed densely arranged thick microvilli on the apical surface of tracheal brush cells and tubular membranous elements and/or vesicular formations in the supranuclear region. A morphometrical analysis of tracheal whole-mount preparations showed that the density of brush cells was greater in the cranial third and the mucosa on the annular ligament. Double immunofluorescence revealed that the morphology of villin-immunoreactive brush cells was distinct from other non-ciliated cells in the tracheal epithelium, i.e., MUC5AC-immunoreactive mucous cells, SNAP25-immunoreactive neuroendocrine cells, and GNAT3-immunoreactive solitary chemosensory cells. On the other hand, tracheal brush cells were immunoreactive for the marker proteins for intestinal brush cells, CK18, DCLK1, and Cox1; however, these antibodies also recognized cells other than brush cells. Furthermore, immunoreactivity for PKD2L1, a cation channel subunit, was detected in brush cells. The present results demonstrated that tracheal brush cells are independent cell types. These brush cells may be activated by acid and the secretion of prostaglandins. In conclusion, the present study revealed that tracheal brush cells are independent cell types based on the morphological and immunohistochemical characteristics.