Structure and inhibition of mouse leukotriene C4 synthase.

Leukotriene (LT) C4 synthase (LTC4S) is an integral membrane protein that catalyzes the conjugation reaction between the fatty acid LTA4 and GSH to form the pro-inflammatory LTC4, an important mediator of asthma. Mouse models of inflammatory disorders such as asthma are key to improve our understanding of pathogenesis and potential therapeutic targets. Here, we solved the crystal structure of mouse LTC4S in complex with GSH and a product analog, S-hexyl-GSH. Furthermore, we synthesized a nM inhibitor and compared its efficiency and binding mode against the purified mouse and human isoenzymes, along with the enzymes' steady-state kinetics. Although structural differences near the active site and along the C-terminal α-helix V suggest that the mouse and human LTC4S may function differently in vivo, our data indicate that mouse LTC4S will be a useful tool in future pharmacological research and drug development.

Crystal structures of leukotriene C4 synthase in complex with product analogs: implications for the enzyme mechanism.

Leukotriene (LT) C4 synthase (LTC4S) catalyzes the conjugation of the fatty acid LTA4 with the tripeptide GSH to produce LTC4, the parent compound of the cysteinyl leukotrienes, important mediators of asthma. Here we mutated Trp-116 in human LTC4S, a residue proposed to play a key role in substrate binding, into an Ala or Phe. Biochemical and structural characterization of these mutants along with crystal structures of the wild type and mutated enzymes in complex with three product analogs, viz. S-hexyl-, 4-phenyl-butyl-, and 2-hydroxy-4-phenyl-butyl-glutathione, provide new insights to binding of substrates and product, identify a new conformation of the GSH moiety at the active site, and suggest a route for product release, aided by Trp-116.

Product formation controlled by substrate dynamics in leukotriene A4 hydrolase.

Leukotriene A4 hydrolase/aminopeptidase (LTA4H) (EC 3.3.2.6) is a bifunctional zinc metalloenzyme with both an epoxide hydrolase and an aminopeptidase activity. LTA4H from the African claw toad, Xenopus laevis (xlLTA4H) has been shown to, unlike the human enzyme, convert LTA4 to two enzymatic metabolites, LTB4 and another biologically active product Δ(6)-trans-Δ(8)-cis-LTB4 (5(S),12R-dihydroxy-6,10-trans-8,14-cis-eicosatetraenoic acid). In order to study the molecular aspect of the formation of this product we have characterized the structure and function of xlLTA4H. We solved the structure of xlLTA4H to a resolution of 2.3Å. It is a dimeric structure where each monomer has three domains with the active site in between the domains, similar as to the human structure. An important difference between the human and amphibian enzyme is the phenylalanine to tyrosine exchange at position 375. Our studies show that mutating F375 in xlLTA4H to tyrosine abolishes the formation of the LTB4 isomeric product Δ(6)-trans-Δ(8)-cis-LTB4. In an attempt to understand how one amino acid exchange leads to a new product profile as seen in the xlLTA4H, we performed a conformer analysis of the triene part of the substrate LTA4. Our results show that the Boltzmann distribution of substrate conformers correlates with the observed distribution of products. We suggest that the observed difference in product profile between the human and the xlLTA4H arises from different level of discrimination between substrate LTA4 conformers.

Catalytic characterization of human microsomal glutathione S-transferase 2: identification of rate-limiting steps.

Microsomal glutathione S-transferase 2 (MGST2) is a 17 kDa trimeric integral membrane protein homologous to leukotriene C4 synthase (LTC4S). MGST2 has been suggested to catalyze the biosynthesis of the pro-inflammatory mediator leukotriene C4 (LTC4) in cells devoid of LTC4S. A detailed biochemical study of MGST2 is critical for the understanding of its cellular function and potential role as an LTC4-producing enzyme. Here we have characterized the substrate specificity and catalytic properties of purified MGST2 by steady-state and pre-steady-state kinetic experiments. In comparison with LTC4S, which has a catalytic efficiency of 8.7 × 10(5) M(-1) s(-1), MGST2, with a catalytic efficiency of 1.8 × 10(4) M(-1) s(-1), is considerably less efficient in producing LTC4. However, the two enzymes display a similar KM(LTA4) of 30-40 µM. While LTC4S has one activated glutathione (GSH) (forming a thiolate) per enzyme monomer, the MGST2 trimer seems to display only third-of-the-sites reactivity for thiolate activation, which in part would explain its lower catalytic efficiency. Furthermore, MGST2 displays GSH-dependent peroxidase activity of ∼0.2 µmol min(-1) mg(-1) toward several lipid hydroperoxides. MGST2, but not LTC4S, is efficient in catalyzing conjugation of the electrophilic substrate 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB) and the lipid peroxidation product 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal with GSH. Using stopped-flow pre-steady-state kinetics, we have characterized the full catalytic reaction of MGST2 with CDNB and GSH as substrates, showing an initial rapid equilibrium binding of GSH followed by thiolate formation. Burst kinetics for the CDNB-GSH conjugation step was observed only at low GSH concentrations (thiolate anion formation becoming rate-limiting under these conditions). Product release is rapid and does not limit the overall reaction. Therefore, in general, the chemical conjugation step is rate-limiting for MGST2 at physiological GSH concentrations. MGST2 and LTC4S exhibit distinct catalytic and mechanistic properties, reflecting adaptation to broad and specific physiological functions, respectively.

Arginine 104 is a key catalytic residue in leukotriene C4 synthase.

Human leukotriene C(4) synthase (hLTC(4)S) is an integral membrane enzyme that conjugates leukotriene (LT) A(4) with glutathione to form LTC(4), a precursor to the cysteinyl leukotrienes (LTC(4), LTD(4), and LTE(4)) that are involved in the pathogenesis of human bronchial asthma. From the crystal structure of hLTC(4)S, Arg-104 and Arg-31 have been implicated in the conjugation reaction. Here, we used site-directed mutagenesis, UV spectroscopy, and x-ray crystallography to examine the catalytic role of Arg-104 and Arg-31. Exchange of Arg-104 with Ala, Ser, Thr, or Lys abolished 94.3-99.9% of the specific activity against LTA(4). Steady-state kinetics of R104A and R104S revealed that the K(m) for GSH was not significantly affected. UV difference spectra of the binary enzyme-GSH complex indicated that GSH ionization depends on the presence of Arg-104 because no thiolate signal, with λ(max) at 239 nm, could be detected using R104A or R104S hLTC(4)S. Apparently, the interaction of Arg-104 with the thiol group of GSH reduces its pK(a) to allow formation of a thiolate anion and subsequent nucleophilic attack at C6 of LTA(4). On the other hand, exchange of Arg-31 with Ala or Glu reduced the catalytic activity of hLTC(4)S by 88 and 70%, respectively, without significantly affecting the k(cat)/K(m) values for GSH, and a crystal structure of R31Q hLTC(4)S (2.1 Å) revealed a Gln-31 side chain pointing away from the active site. We conclude that Arg-104 plays a critical role in the catalytic mechanism of hLTC(4)S, whereas a functional role of Arg-31 seems more elusive. Because Arg-104 is a conserved residue, our results pertain to other homologous membrane proteins and represent a structure-function paradigm probably common to all microsomal GSH transferases.

Expression and purification of the recombinant membrane protein YidC: a case study for increased stability and solubility.

YidC is an inner membrane protein from Escherichia coli and is an essential component in insertion, translocation and assembly of membrane proteins in the membranes. Previous purification attempts resulted in heavy aggregates and precipitated protein at later stages of purification. Here we present a rapid and straightforward stability screening strategy based on gel filtration chromatography, which requires as little as 10 microg of protein and takes less than 15 min to perform. With this technique, we could rapidly screen several buffers in order to identify an optimum condition that stabilizes purified YidC. After optimization we could obtain several milligrams of purified YidC that could be easily prepared at high concentrations and that was stable for weeks at +4 degrees C. The isolated protein is thus well suited for structural studies.

Structural basis for synthesis of inflammatory mediators by human leukotriene C4 synthase.

Cysteinyl leukotrienes are key mediators in inflammation and have an important role in acute and chronic inflammatory diseases of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, in particular bronchial asthma. In the biosynthesis of cysteinyl leukotrienes, conversion of arachidonic acid forms the unstable epoxide leukotriene A4 (LTA4). This intermediate is conjugated with glutathione (GSH) to produce leukotriene C4 (LTC4) in a reaction catalysed by LTC4 synthase: this reaction is the key step in cysteinyl leukotriene formation. Here we present the crystal structure of the human LTC4 synthase in its apo and GSH-complexed forms to 2.00 and 2.15 A resolution, respectively. The structure reveals a homotrimer, where each monomer is composed of four transmembrane segments. The structure of the enzyme in complex with substrate reveals that the active site enforces a horseshoe-shaped conformation on GSH, and effectively positions the thiol group for activation by a nearby arginine at the membrane-enzyme interface. In addition, the structure provides a model for how the omega-end of the lipophilic co-substrate is pinned at one end of a hydrophobic cleft, providing a molecular 'ruler' to align the reactive epoxide at the thiol of glutathione. This provides new structural insights into the mechanism of LTC4 formation, and also suggests that the observed binding and activation of GSH might be common for a family of homologous proteins important for inflammatory and detoxification responses.

Crystal structure of a divalent metal ion transporter CorA at 2.9 angstrom resolution.

CorA family members are ubiquitously distributed transporters of divalent metal cations and are considered to be the primary Mg2+ transporter of Bacteria and Archaea. We have determined a 2.9 angstrom resolution structure of CorA from Thermotoga maritima that reveals a pentameric cone-shaped protein. Two potential regulatory metal binding sites are found in the N-terminal domain that bind both Mg2+ and Co2+. The structure of CorA supports an efflux system involving dehydration and rehydration of divalent metal ions potentially mediated by a ring of conserved aspartate residues at the cytoplasmic entrance and a carbonyl funnel at the periplasmic side of the pore.

A simple strategy towards membrane protein purification and crystallization.

A simple and cost-efficient detergent screening strategy has been developed, by which a number of detergents were screened for their efficiency to extract and purify the recombinant ammonium/ammonia channel, AmtB, from Escherichia coli, hence selecting the most efficient detergents prior to large-scale protein production and crystallization. The method requires 1 ml cell culture and is a combination of immobilized metal ion affinity chromatography and filtration steps in 96-well plates. Large-scale protein purification and subsequent crystallization screening resulted in AmtB crystals diffracting to low resolution with three detergents. This strategy allows exclusion of detergents with the lowest probability in yielding protein crystals and selecting those with higher probability, hence, reducing the number of detergents to be screened prior to large-scale membrane protein purification and perhaps also crystallization.