Genomic Epidemiology of NDM-1-Encoding Plasmids in Latin American Clinical Isolates Reveals Insights into the Evolution of Multidrug Resistance.

Bacteria that produce the broad-spectrum Carbapenem antibiotic New Delhi Metallo-ß-lactamase (NDM) place a burden on health care systems worldwide, due to the limited treatment options for infections caused by them and the rapid global spread of this antibiotic resistance mechanism. Although it is believed that the associated resistance gene blaNDM-1 originated in Acinetobacter spp., the role of Enterobacteriaceae in its dissemination remains unclear. In this study, we used whole genome sequencing to investigate the dissemination dynamics of blaNDM-1-positive plasmids in a set of 21 clinical NDM-1-positive isolates from Colombia and Mexico (Providencia rettgeri, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Acinetobacter baumannii) as well as six representative NDM-1-positive Escherichia coli transconjugants. Additionally, the plasmids from three representative P. rettgeri isolates were sequenced by PacBio sequencing and finished. Our results demonstrate the presence of previously reported plasmids from K. pneumoniae and A. baumannii in different genetic backgrounds and geographically distant locations in Colombia. Three new previously unclassified plasmids were also identified in P. rettgeri from Colombia and Mexico, plus an interesting genetic link between NDM-1-positive P. rettgeri from distant geographic locations (Canada, Mexico, Colombia, and Israel) without any reported epidemiological links was discovered. Finally, we detected a relationship between plasmids present in P. rettgeri and plasmids from A. baumannii and K. pneumoniae. Overall, our findings suggest a Russian doll model for the dissemination of blaNDM-1 in Latin America, with P. rettgeri playing a central role in this process, and reveal new insights into the evolution and dissemination of plasmids carrying such antibiotic resistance genes.

Multicenter study in Colombia: Impact of a multidimensional International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium (INICC) approach on central line-associated bloodstream infection rates.

BACKGROUND: The objective of this study was to analyze the impact of a multidimensional infection control approach and the use of the International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium (INICC) Surveillance Online System on central line-associated bloodstream infection (CLABSI) rates from June 2003-April 2010. METHODS: We conducted a prospective, before-after surveillance study of 2,564 patients hospitalized in 4 adult intensive care units (ICUs) and 424 patients in 2 pediatric ICUs of 4 hospitals in 2 cities of Colombia. During baseline, we performed outcome surveillance of CLABSI applying the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's National Healthcare Safety Network definitions. During intervention, we implemented the INICC multidimensional approach and the ISOS, which included a bundle of infection prevention practice interventions, education, outcome surveillance, process surveillance, feedback on CLABSI rates and consequences, and performance feedback of process surveillance. Bivariate and multivariate regression analyses were performed using a logistic regression model to estimate the effect of the intervention on the CLABSI rate. RESULTS: The baseline rate of 12.9 CLABSIs per 1,000 central line (CL) days, with 3,032 CL days and 39 CLABSIs, was reduced to 3.5 CLABSIs per 1,000 CL days, with 3,686 CL days and 13 CLABSIs, accounting for a 73% CLABSI rate reduction (relative risk, 0.27; 95% confidence interval, 0.14-0.52; P=.002). CONCLUSIONS: Implementing the INICC multidimensional infection control approach for CLABSI prevention was associated with a significant reduction in the CLABSI rate of ICUs of Colombia.

[The spread of KPC-3 Klebsiella pneumoniae in hospitals in Bogotá over a three-year period (2008-2010)]. / Diseminación de Klebsiella pneumoniae productoras de KPC-3 en hospitales de Bogotá durante un periodo de tres años.

UNLABELLED: Introduction : One of the major worldwide public health problems today are the infections caused by carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE), among which carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae (CRKP), constitutes one of the most common pathogens causing nosocomial infection. OBJECTIVE: This study was aimed at describing the dissemination of KPC-3 enzyme-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae in clinical isolates from hospitals in Bogotá. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Eighty-two CRKP isolates collected from 10 hospitals in Bogotá from 2008-2010 were analysed; disk diffusion and microdilution were used for phenotypic detection of enzymes and PCR for genotyping. Automated and manual methods were used for determining profiles for antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) with 13 agents. PFGE was used for obtaining the isolates´ genetic relationship. RESULTS: This study gives an overview of CRKP patterns in 10 hospitals in Bogota which were found to present resistance to multiple antibiotic families. The CRKPs were grouped in different clones, each having different subtypes, and were spread in the 10 hospitals over the three-year period (2008-2010). CONCLUSIONS: The dissemination of KPC-3-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae nosocomial isolates in Bogota highlights the need for strengthening epidemiological surveillance against this type of microorganism and the development of specific priority activities for preventing and controlling such infection.

Impact of the International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium (INICC) multidimensional hand hygiene approach in three cities of Colombia.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the feasibility and effectiveness of the International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium (INICC) multidimensional hand hygiene (HH) approach in Colombia, and analyze predictors of poor HH compliance. METHODS: An observational, prospective, interventional, before-and-after study was conducted from May 2003 through September 2010 in 10 intensive care units (ICUs) of six hospitals in three cities. The study was divided into two periods: a baseline and a follow-up period. Observations for HH compliance were done in each ICU during randomly selected 30-min periods. The multidimensional HH approach included: (1) administrative support, (2) supplies availability, (3) education and training, (4) reminders in the workplace, (5) process surveillance, and (6) performance feedback. RESULTS: A total of 13 187 opportunities for HH were observed. Overall HH compliance increased from 50% to 77% (relative risk 1.55, 95% confidence interval 1.43-1.68; p=0.0001). Multivariate and univariate analyses showed that several variables were significantly associated with poor HH compliance: males vs. females (67% vs. 77%; p=0.0001), physicians vs. nurses (59% vs. 78%; p<0.0001), and adult vs. pediatric ICUs (76% vs. 42%; p<0.001), among others. CONCLUSIONS: Adherence to HH was increased by 55% with the INICC approach. Programs targeted at improving HH in variables found to be predictors of poor compliance should be implemented.

Colonización por Staphylococcus aureus resistente a la meticilinaen una unidad de cuidados intensivos de adultos de un hospitalcolombiano: caracterización fenotípica y molecular con detecciónde un clon de circulación en la comunidad / Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus colonization in a Colombian hospital intensive care unit: phenotypic and molecular characterization

Introducción. Staphylococcus aureus resistente a la meticilina (SARM) causa infecciones adquiridas en la comunidad y en el ámbito hospitalario. El ser portador de SARM se ha descrito como factor de riesgo para desarrollar infección clínica. Objetivo. Caracterizar la colonización por SARM en pacientes adultos de una unidad de cuidados intensivos colombiana, utilizando herramientas de biología molecular.Materiales y métodos. Entre febrero de 2007 y febrero de 2008 se tamizaron mediante hisopado nasofaríngeo, 705 pacientes al ingresar a la unidad de cuidados intensivos, de los cuales, 683 (96,9%) fueron seguidos semanalmente y al egreso de la unidad. Se determinó el perfil de sensibilidad de los aislamientos a 11 antibióticos por el método de dilución en agar; el 62,0% de los aislamientos de SARM fueron caracterizados genética y molecularmente. Resultados. Se tamizaron 705 pacientes al ingreso; 182 (25,8%) estaban colonizados por S. aureus, de los cuales, 51 (7,2%) eran resistentes a la meticilina. Se hizo el seguimiento durante la estancia en la unidad de cuidados intensivos a 683 pacientes, de los cuales, 62 (9,1%) fueron colonizados por SARM en dicha unidad. La prevalencia del clon chileno fue de 76,5% al ingreso y de 88,9% durante la estancia. El 16,0% de los pacientes colonizados desarrollaron algún tipo de infección por SARM. Se encontraron tres pacientes colonizados con SARM adquirido en la comunidad, los cuales fueron positivos para la leucocidina Panton-Valentine (Panton-Valentine leukocidin, PVL). Conclusiones. El 7,2% de los pacientes que ingresaron a la unidad de cuidados intensivos estaban colonizados con SARM. Éste es el primer reporte de colonización por aislamientos de SARM-ST8-SCCmec IVc adquirido en la comunidad y relacionado genéticamente con el clon pandémico USA300-0114 en Colombia.

Introduction. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) cause nosocomial and community infections. MRSA colonization in hospitals has been described as an important risk factor during hospitalization. Objective. The colonization characteristics of MRSA was described using the tools of molecular biology. Materials and methods. Between February 2007 and February 2008, 705 patients entering a Colombian intensive care unit (ICU) were screened for MRSA by taking nasopharyngeal samples. For 683 of these patients, a weekly follow-up was provided after they left the ICU. The susceptibility of each S. aureus isolate was tested against 11 antibiotics using agar dilution methods. Sixty two percent (62.0%) of the MRSA isolates were characterized at genetic and molecular level with the detection of resistant genes, SCCmec typing using PCR and the genetic profile with pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). Results. Of the 705 patients screened at entry to the ICU, 182 (25.8%) were colonized by S. aureus, and of these, 51 (7.2%) were MRSA. Of the 683 patients with follow-up, 62 (9.1%) were infected by MRSA contracted in the hospital ICU. The prevalence of the Chilean clone was 76.5% at entry and 88.9% for follow-up patients. Of the 113 patients colonized with MRSA, nosocomial infection was present in 18 patients (16.0%). Three community-acquired MRSA isolates related to the USA300-0114 pandemic clone were identified. These were also positive for Panton-Valentine leucidin cytotoxin genes of S.aureus. Conclusions. This is the first report in Colombia of patients colonized with CA-MRSA-ST8-SCCmec IVc isolates, and it is a probable source of dissemination of this bacteria in Colombian hospitals.

[Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus colonization in a Colombian hospital intensive care unit: phenotypic and molecular characterization]. / Colonización por Staphylococcus aureus resistente a la meticilina en una unidad de cuidados intensivos de adultos de un hospital colombiano: caracterización fenotípica y molecular con detección de un clon de circulación en la comunidad.

INTRODUCTION: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) cause nosocomial and community infections. MRSA colonization in hospitals has been described as an important risk factor during hospitalization. OBJECTIVE: The colonization characteristics of MRSA was described using the tools of molecular biology. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Between February 2007 and February 2008, 705 patients entering a Colombian intensive care unit (ICU) were screened for MRSA by taking nasopharyngeal samples. For 683 of these patients, a weekly follow-up was provided after they left the ICU. The susceptibility of each S. aureus isolate was tested against 11 antibiotics using agar dilution methods. Sixty two percent (62.0%) of the MRSA isolates were characterized at genetic and molecular level with the detection of resistant genes, SCCmec typing using PCR and the genetic profile with pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). RESULTS: Of the 705 patients screened at entry to the ICU, 182 (25.8%) were colonized by S. aureus, and of these, 51 (7.2%) were MRSA. Of the 683 patients with follow-up, 62 (9.1%) were infected by MRSA contracted in the hospital ICU. The prevalence of the Chilean clone was 76.5% at entry and 88.9% for follow-up patients. Of the 113 patients colonized with MRSA, nosocomial infection was present in 18 patients (16.0%). Three community-acquired MRSA isolates related to the USA300-0114 pandemic clone were identified. These were also positive for Panton-Valentine leucidin cytotoxin genes of S.aureus. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first report in Colombia of patients colonized with CA-MRSA-ST8-SCCmec IVc isolates, and it is a probable source of dissemination of this bacteria in Colombian hospitals.

Evaluación de guías de práctica clínica / Evaluation of Clinical Practice Guidelines

El desarrollo acelerado de guías de práctica clínica, en la última década, ha determinado la importancia de realizar una adecuada evaluación de éstas, por parte de los sistemas de salud y de los clínicos, antes de adoptarlas. La evaluación de las guías debe realizarse de forma rigurosa en cuatro áreas particulares: calidad, implementación, aplicabilidad y registro en el Sistema Nacional de Guías.

In the last decade the accelerated development of clinical practice guidelines has determined the importance of making a suitable evaluation before adopting them by the health systems and physicians. The evaluation of the guides must be made in a rigorous form in four particular areas: quality, implementation, applicability and registry in the National Unique System of Guidelines.

[Molecular characterization of an outbreak caused by CTX-M-12-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae in a Colombian hospital's neonatal intensive care unit]. / Caracterización molecular de un brote por Klebsiella pneumoniae productora de CTX-M-12 en la unidad de cuidado intensivo neonatal de un hospital Colombiano.

INTRODUCTION: Molecular characterisation of Klebsiella pneumoniae strains is a tool that assits in the reduction of the disemination of drug resistance and the control of nosocomial infections that are caused by this pathogen. Objective. Molecular description of an outbreak of nosocomial infection caused by Klebsiella pneumoniae in a neonatal intensive care unit in a tertiary level hospital in Bogotá. METHODS: Eleven Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates were analysed. Production of Extended Spectrum Beta-Lactamases was verified by agar diffusion tests. Isoelectric points of the enzymes were determined by isoelectric focusing. The bla(CTX-M-12) gene was detected by PCR and pulsed field gel electrophoresis genotyping was done. RESULTS: All the isolates were Extended Spectrum Beta-Lactamase producers. Pulsed field gel electrophoresis and BOX-PCR genotyping grouped two isolates from hospital objects and eight infection-causing isolates into a single epidemic clone. The isolate from a thermometer was not grouped into the epidemic clone and showed a different resistance pattern. Isoelectric focusing revealed simultaneous beta-lactamase production having different isoelectric points. PCR amplification revealed the presence of the bla(CTX-M-12) gene in the 11 isolates studied. CONCLUSION: This is the first report of a molecularly characterised outbreak of CTX-M-12-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae from Colombia. The results of this study provide additional evidence of the global dissemination of CTX-M ESBL and the need for epidemiological follow-up in our hospitals.

Caracterización molecular de un brote por Klebsiella pneumoniae productora de CTX-M-12 en la unidad de cuidado intensivo neonatal de un hospital colombiano / Molecular characterization of an outbreak caused by CTX-M-12-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae in a Colombian hospital´s neonatal intensive care unit

Introducción. La caracterización molecular de cepas de Klebsiella pneumoniae es una herramienta que contribuye a disminuir la diseminación de la resistencia y al control de las infecciones nosocomiales causadas por este patógeno. Objetivo. Describir molecularmente un brote de infección nosocomial por Klebsiella pneumoniae en la Unidad de Cuidado Intensivo Neonatal de un hospital de tercer nivel de Bogotá. Materiales y métodos. Se analizaron once aislamientos. Se verificó la producción de betalactamasas de espectro extendido mediante pruebas de difusión en agar. Se determinaron los puntos isoeléctricos de las betalactamasas mediante isoelectroenfoque. Se detectó el gen blaCTX-M-12 por PCR y se realizó genotipificación mediante BOX- PCR y electroforesis en gel con campos pulsados (PFGE). Resultados. Los aislamientos fueron productores de beta-lactamasas de espectro extendido. La genotipificación por PFGE y por BOX-PCR, agrupó a dos aislamientos provenientes de objetos hospitalarios y a los ocho aislamientos causantes de infección en un grupo clonal epidémico. El aislamiento proveniente de un termómetro no fue agrupado en el grupo clonal epidémico y mostró un patrón de resistencia diferente. Se observó la producción simultánea de beta-lactamasas con diferentes puntos isoeléctricos. La PCR reveló el gen blaCTX-M-12 en los 11 aislamientos estudiados. Conclusión: Este es el primer informe en Colombia de un brote por Klebsiella pneumoniae productora de CTX-M-12, caracterizado molecularmente. Este estudio da evidencia adicional de la diseminación global de BLEE de tipo CTX-M y alerta sobre la necesidad de actividades especificas de prevención para cortar la cadena de transmisión y del seguimiento de tipo epidemiológico en nuestros centros hospitalarios

Introduction. Molecular characterisation of Klebsiella pneumoniae strains is a tool that assits in the reduction of the disemination of drug resistance and the control of nosocomial infections that are caused by this pathogen. Objective. Molecular description of an outbreak of nosocomial infection caused by Klebsiella pneumoniae in a neonatal intensive care unit in a tertiary level hospital in Bogotá. Methods: Eleven Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates were analysed. Production of Extended Spectrum Beta-Lactamases was verified by agar diffusion tests. Isoelectric points of the enzymes were determined by isoelectric focusing. The blaCTX-M-12 gene was detected by PCR and pulsed field gel electrophoresis genotyping was done. Results. All the isolates were Extended Spectrum Beta-Lactamase producers. Pulsed field gel electrophoresis and BOX-PCR genotyping grouped two isolates from hospital objects and eight infection-causing isolates into a single epidemic clone. The isolate from a thermometer was not grouped into the epidemic clone and showed a different resistance pattern. Isoelectric focusing revealed simultaneous beta-lactamase production having different isoelectric points. PCR amplification revealed the presence of the blaCTX-M-12 gene in the 11 isolates studied. Conclusion. This is the first report of a molecularly characterised outbreak of CTX-M-12-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae from Colombia. The results of this study provide additional evidence of the global dissemination of CTX-M ESBL and the need for epidemiological follow-up in our hospitals.

Device-associated infection rate and mortality in intensive care units of 9 Colombian hospitals: findings of the International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium.

OBJECTIVE: To perform active targeted prospective surveillance to measure device-associated infection (DAI) rates, attributable mortality due to DAI, and the microbiological and antibiotic resistance profiles of infecting pathogens at 10 intensive care units (ICUs) in 9 hospitals in Colombia, all of which are members of the International Infection Control Consortium. METHODS: We conducted prospective surveillance of healthcare-associated infection in 9 hospitals by using the definitions of the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Nosocomial Surveillance System (NNIS). DAI rates were calculated as the number of infections per 100 ICU patients and per 1,000 device-days. RESULTS: During the 3-year study, 2,172 patients hospitalized in an ICU for an aggregate duration of 14,603 days acquired 266 DAIs, for an overall DAI rate of 12.2%, or 18.2 DAIs per 1,000 patient-days. Central venous catheter (CVC)-related bloodstream infection (BSI) (47.4% of DAIs; 11.3 cases per 1,000 catheter-days) was the most common DAI, followed by ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) (32.3% of DAIs; 10.0 cases per 1,000 ventilator-days) and catheter-associated urinary tract infection (CAUTI) (20.3% of DAIs; 4.3 cases per 1,000 catheter-days). Overall, 65.4% of all Staphylococcus aureus infections were caused by methicillin-resistant strains; 40.0% of Enterobacteriaceae isolates were resistant to ceftriaxone and 28.3% were resistant to ceftazidime; and 40.0% of Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates were resistant to fluoroquinolones, 50.0% were resistant to ceftazidime, 33.3% were resistant to piperacillin-tazobactam, and 19.0% were resistant to imipenem. The crude unadjusted attributable mortality was 16.9% among patients with VAP (relative risk [RR], 1.93; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.24-3.00; P=.002); 18.5 among those with CVC-associated BSI (RR, 2.02; 95% CI, 1.42-2.87; P<.001); and 10.5% among those with CAUTI (RR, 1.58; 95% CI, 0.78-3.18; P=.19). CONCLUSION: The rates of DAI in the Colombian ICUs were lower than those published in some reports from other Latin American countries and were higher than those reported in US ICUs by the NNIS. These data show the need for more-effective infection control interventions in Colombia.