Universal Tick Vaccines: Candidates and Remaining Challenges.

Recent advancements in molecular biology, particularly regarding massively parallel sequencing technologies, have enabled scientists to gain more insight into the physiology of ticks. While there has been progress in identifying tick proteins and the pathways they are involved in, the specificities of tick-host interaction at the molecular level are not yet fully understood. Indeed, the development of effective commercial tick vaccines has been slower than expected. While omics studies have pointed to some potential vaccine immunogens, selecting suitable antigens for a multi-antigenic vaccine is very complex due to the participation of redundant molecules in biological pathways. The expansion of ticks and their pathogens into new territories and exposure to new hosts makes it necessary to evaluate vaccine efficacy in unusual and non-domestic host species. This situation makes ticks and tick-borne diseases an increasing threat to animal and human health globally, demanding an urgent availability of vaccines against multiple tick species and their pathogens. This review discusses the challenges and advancements in the search for universal tick vaccines, including promising new antigen candidates, and indicates future directions in this crucial research field.

A new genotype of bovine leukemia virus in South America identified by NGS-based whole genome sequencing and molecular evolutionary genetic analysis.

BACKGROUND: Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) is a member of retroviridae family, together with human T cell leukemia virus types 1 and 2 (HTLV-1 and -2) belonging to the genes deltaretrovirus, and infects cattle worldwide. Previous studies have classified the env sequences of BLV provirus from different geographic locations into eight genetic groups. To investigate the genetic variability of BLV in South America, we performed phylogenetic analyses of whole genome and partial env gp51 sequences of BLV strains isolated from Peru, Paraguay and Bolivia, for which no the molecular characteristics of BLV have previously been published, and discovered a novel BLV genotype, genotype-9, in Bolivia. RESULTS: In Peru and Paraguay, 42.3 % (139/328) and over 50 % (76/139) of samples, respectively, were BLV positive. In Bolivia, the BLV infection rate was up to 30 % (156/507) at the individual level. In Argentina, 325/420 samples were BLV positive, with a BLV prevalence of 77.4 % at the individual level and up to 90.9 % at herd level. By contrast, relatively few BLV positive samples were detected in Chile, with a maximum of 29.1 % BLV infection at the individual level. We performed phylogenetic analyses using two different approaches, maximum likelihood (ML) tree and Bayesian inference, using 35 distinct partial env gp51 sequences from BLV strains isolated from Peru, Paraguay, and Bolivia, and 74 known BLV strains, representing eight different BLV genotypes from various geographical locations worldwide. The results indicated that Peruvian and Paraguayan BLV strains were grouped into genotypes-1, -2, and -6, while those from Bolivia were clustered into genotypes-1, -2, and -6, and a new genotype, genotype-9. Interestingly, these results were confirmed using ML phylogenetic analysis of whole genome sequences obtained by next generation sequencing of 25 BLV strains, assigned to four different genotypes (genotypes-1, -2, -6, and -9) from Peru, Paraguay, and Bolivia. Comparative analyses of complete genome sequences clearly showed some specific substitutions, in both structural and non-structural BLV genes, distinguishing the novel genotype-9 from known genotypes. CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrate widespread BLV infection in South American cattle and the existence of a new BLV genotype-9 in Bolivia. We conclude that at least seven BLV genotypes (genotypes-1, -2, -4, -5, -6, -7, and -9) are circulating in South America.

Detection and molecular characterization of bovine leukemia virus in Philippine cattle.

Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) is the etiological agent of enzootic bovine leukosis, which is the most common neoplastic disease of cattle. BLV infects cattle worldwide, imposing a severe economic impact on the dairy cattle industry. However, there are no comprehensive studies on the distribution of BLV in the Philippines, and the genetic characteristics of Philippine BLV strains are unknown. Therefore, the aim of this study was to detect BLV infections in the Philippines and determined their genetic variability. Blood samples were obtained from 1116 cattle from different farms on five Philippine islands, and BLV provirus was detected by BLV-CoCoMo-qPCR-2 and nested PCR targeting BLV long terminal repeats. Out of 1116 samples, 108 (9.7 %) and 54 (4.8 %) were positive for BLV provirus, as determined by BLV-CoCoMo-qPCR-2 and nested PCR, respectively. Of the five islands, Luzon Island showed the highest prevalence of BLV infection (23.1 %). Partial env gp51 genes from 43 samples, which were positive for BLV provirus by both methods, were sequenced for phylogenetic analysis. Phylogenetic analysis based on a 423-bp fragment of the env gene revealed that Philippine BLV strains clustered into either genotype 1 or genotype 6. Substitutions were mainly found in antigenic determinants, such as the CD4(+) T-cell epitope, the CD8(+) T-cell epitope, the second neutralizing domain, B and E epitopes, and these substitutions varied according to genotype. This study provides comprehensive information regarding BLV infection levels in the Philippines and documents the presence of two BLV genotypes, genotypes 1 and 6, in this population.

Isolation, cloning, and pathologic analysis of Trypanosoma evansi field isolates.

In recent years, the emergence of highly pathogenic Trypanosoma evansi strains in the Philippines has resulted in substantial losses in livestock production. In this study, we isolated T. evansi from infected-water buffaloes in the Philippines and analyzed their virulence using mice and cattle. A total of 10 strains of T. evansi were isolated. Evaluation of the virulence of each strain using mice depicted significant differences among the strains in the prepatent period, the level of parasitemia, and the survival time of the infected animals. In mice infected with the highly pathogenic T. evansi, signs of excessive inflammation such as marked splenomegaly and increase more than 6-fold in the number of leukocytes were observed at 8 days post-infection. To study the virulence of the parasite strains in cattle (which are the common T. evansi hosts in Philippines), cattle were infected with the T. evansi isolates that showed high and low virulence in mice. The rate of parasite growth and the length of the prepatent periods were found to be similar to those observed in mice for the respective strains. The cattle infected with the highly pathogenic strain developed anemia and a marked decrease in leukocyte counts. To determine the cause of the pathological changes, we analyzed the expression levels of inflammatory cytokines and observed up-regulation of tumor necrosis factor-α in anemic infected cattle. Our findings suggest that the epidemic of T. evansi in the Philippines is characterized by T. evansi strains with varying virulences from low to very high pathogenicity in cattle.

Characterization of Meq proteins from field isolates of Marek's disease virus in Japan.

Serotype 1 strains of Marek's disease virus (MDV-1) cause malignant lymphomas in chickens (Marek's disease; MD). Although MD has been controlled by vaccination, field isolates of MDV-1 have tended to increase in virulence and cause MD even in vaccinated chickens. Meq, a putative MDV-1 oncoprotein, resembles the Jun/Fos family of basic leucine zipper (bZIP) transcription factors and can regulate the expression of viral and cellular genes as a homodimer or as a heterodimer with a variety of bZIP family proteins. Sequencing analysis of some of the viral genes of various MDV-1 strains revealed a distinct diversity of and point mutations in Meq, which may contribute to changes in the transcriptional activities of Meq and, consequently, to increases in MDV-1 oncogenicity. However, few reports have characterized MDV-1 strains isolated in Japan. In this study, we established the amino acid sequences of MDV-1 field isolates from Japan in order to determine whether they display a distinct diversity of and point mutations in Meq. In addition, we analyzed the transactivation activities of the Meq proteins in order to evaluate whether the observed mutations affect their functions. Japanese MDV-1 isolates displayed the distinct mutations in basic region 2 (BR2) and proline-rich repeats (PRRs) of the Meq proteins as well as some unique mutations. Reporter assays revealed that the amino acid substitutions in BR2 and the PRRs affected the Meq transactivation activity. These results suggest that the distinct mutations are also present in the Meq proteins of MDV-1 isolates from Japan and affect their transactivation activities.

Characterization of bovine MHC DRB3 diversity in Latin American Creole cattle breeds.

In cattle, bovine leukocyte antigens (BoLAs) have been extensively used as markers for diseases and immunological traits. However, none of the highly adapted Latin American Creole breeds have been characterized for BoLA gene polymorphism by high resolution typing methods. In this work, we sequenced exon 2 of the BoLA class II DRB3 gene from 179 cattle (113 Bolivian Yacumeño cattle and 66 Colombian Hartón del Valle cattle breeds) using a polymerase chain reaction sequence-based typing (PCR-SBT) method. We identified 36 previously reported alleles and three novel alleles. Thirty-five (32 reported and three new) and 24 alleles (22 reported and two new) were detected in Yacumeño and Hartón del Valle breeds, respectively. Interestingly, Latin American Creole cattle showed a high degree of gene diversity despite their small population sizes, and 10 alleles including three new alleles were found only in these two Creole breeds. We next compared the degree of genetic variability at the population and sequence levels and the genetic distance in the two breeds with those previously reported in five other breeds: Holstein, Japanese Shorthorn, Japanese Black, Jersey, and Hanwoo. Both Creole breeds presented gene diversity higher than 0.90, a nucleotide diversity higher than 0.07, and mean number of pairwise differences higher than 19, indicating that Creole cattle had similar genetic diversity at BoLA-DRB3 to the other breeds. A neutrality test showed that the high degree of genetic variability may be maintained by balancing selection. The FST index and the exact G test showed significant differences across all cattle populations (FST=0.0478; p<0.001). Results from the principal components analysis and the phylogenetic tree showed that Yacumeño and Hartón del Valle breeds were closely related to each other. Collectively, our results suggest that the high level of genetic diversity could be explained by the multiple origins of the Creole germplasm (European, African and Indicus), and this diversity might be maintained by balancing selection.

Enhanced expression of LAG-3 on lymphocyte subpopulations from persistently lymphocytotic cattle infected with bovine leukemia virus.

An immunoinhibitory receptor, lymphocyte activation gene-3 (LAG-3), which is mainly expressed in T-cells, is involved in the immune evasion of several pathogens causing chronic infections and tumors. However, unlike human or mouse LAG-3, no functional analysis of LAG-3 has been reported in domestic animals. Thus, in this study, bovine LAG-3 expression was analyzed in bovine leukemia virus (BLV)-infected cattle. In persistent lymphocytotic (PL) cattle, the numbers of LAG-3(+)CD4(+) cells and LAG-3(+)CD8(+) cells were conserved whilst the number of MHC class II(+) cells was remarkably higher than in the control animals. In contrast, the mean fluorescence intensity (MFI) for LAG-3 on PBMCs from PL cattle was significantly increased compared to control and asymptomatic (AL) cattle. Specifically, the LAG-3 expression level was significantly increased in both CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells from PL cattle. LAG-3 expression correlated positively with increased numbers of lymphocytes and MHC class II(+) cells in infected animals. Preliminary results from PD-L1 and LAG-3 blockade assay revealed that IFN-γ and IL-2 expressions were significantly up-regulated by addition of anti- PD-L1 and LAG-3 antibodies in PBMCs from PL cattle. These findings suggest that LAG-3 might be involved in the inhibition of T-cell function through its binding and signaling on MHC class II molecule during BLV infection.

Effects of interferon-tau on cattle persistently infected with bovine viral diarrhea virus.

In this study, the antiviral effects of bovine interferon-tau (boIFN-tau) on bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) were examined in vitro and in vivo. In the in vitro experiments, the replication of cytopathic and non-cytopathic BVDV was inhibited in the bovine cells treated with boIFN-tau. The replication of BVDV was completely suppressed by boIFN-tau at a concentration higher than 10(2) U/ml. In order to examine the effect of boIFN-tau on virus propagation in cattle persistently infected (PI) with non-cytopathic BVDV, boIFN-tau was subcutaneously administered to PI cattle at 10(5) U/kg or 10(6) U/kg body weight 5 times per week for 2 weeks. No physical abnormality such as depression was observed in the cattle during the experiment. The mean BVDV titers in the serum of the PI cattle decreased slightly during the boIFN-tau administration period with the dose of 10(6) U/kg. However, the BVDV titers in the serum returned to the pre-administration level after the final boIFN-tau administration. These results suggest that boIFN-tau demonstrates an anti-BVDV effect, reducing the BVDV level in serum transiently when injected into PI cattle.

Increased bovine Tim-3 and its ligand expressions during bovine leukemia virus infection.

The immunoinhibitory receptor T cell immunoglobulin domain and mucin domain-3 (Tim-3) and its ligand, galectin-9 (Gal-9), are involved in the immune evasion mechanisms for several pathogens causing chronic infections. However, there is no report concerning the role of Tim-3 in diseases of domestic animals. In this study, cDNA encoding for bovine Tim-3 and Gal-9 were cloned and sequenced, and their expression and role in immune reactivation were analyzed in bovine leukemia virus (BLV)-infected cattle. Predicted amino acid sequences of Tim-3 and Gal-9 shared high homologies with human and mouse homologues. Functional domains, including tyrosine kinase phosphorylation motif in the intracellular domain of Tim-3 were highly conserved among cattle and other species. Quantitative real-time PCR analysis showed that bovine Tim-3 mRNA is mainly expressed in T cells such as CD4+ and CD8+ cells, while Gal-9 mRNA is mainly expressed in monocyte and T cells. Tim-3 mRNA expression in CD4+ and CD8+ cells was upregulated during disease progression of BLV infection. Interestingly, expression levels for Tim-3 and Gal-9 correlated positively with viral load in infected cattle. Furthermore, Tim-3 expression level closely correlated with up-regulation of IL-10 in infected cattle. The expression of IFN-γ and IL-2 mRNA was upregulated when PBMC from BLV-infected cattle were cultured with Cos-7 cells expressing Tim-3 to inhibit the Tim-3/Gal-9 pathway. Moreover, combined blockade of the Tim-3/Gal-9 and PD-1/PD-L1 pathways significantly promoted IFN-γ mRNA expression compared with blockade of the PD-1/PD-L1 pathway alone. These results suggest that Tim-3 is involved in the suppression of T cell function during BLV infection.

Surveillance of Marek's disease virus in migratory and sedentary birds in Hokkaido, Japan.

Marek's disease virus serotype 1 (MDV-1) strains cause malignant lymphoma in chickens. MDV-1 has been previously reported to be widespread in white-fronted geese (Anser albifrons); however, the prevalence of MDV-1 in other wild birds has not been determined. In this study, we investigated the prevalence of MDV-1 in various wild birds in Hokkaido, Japan. The MDV-1 genome was widespread in geese and ducks, but was not detected in other birds. MDV-1 was detected in both sedentary and migratory species. These results suggest that, in Japan, MDV-1 is widespread in wild goose and duck populations, and that resident ducks may be significant carriers and reservoirs of MDV-1.

Molecular cloning of bovine lymphocyte activation gene-3 and its expression characteristics in bovine leukemia virus-infected cattle.

Lymphocyte activation gene-3 (LAG-3), a major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II binding CD4 homologue has recently been shown as one of the mechanisms for down-regulating immune responses during chronic disease progression. For the first time, we cloned LAG-3 from two breeds of cattle (Holstein and Japanese Black), and analyzed its expression levels in cattle infected with bovine leukemia virus (BLV), a chronic viral infection that leads to immuno-suppression. The cloned cDNA of bovine LAG-3 have an open reading frame of 1551 nucleotides, encoding a polypeptide of 515 amino acids in length. Similar to the swine LAG-3, the bovine LAG-3 protein sequence consisted of four extracellular domains, a transmembrane domain and an inhibitory motif, KTGELE. We found that the bovine LAG-3 mRNA transcripts were expressed predominantly on T-cells such as CD4(+) and CD8(+) cells, among peripheral blood mononuclear cells. In subsequent expression analysis, LAG-3 mRNA expression on CD4(+) T-cells from BLV-infected cattle was upregulated compared to that in normal cattle. Comparable results were obtained with CD8(+) T-cells from cattle infected with BLV. We further observed strong upregualtion of MHC class II molecule, the ligand for LAG-3 in BLV-infected cattle. These findings indicate an important role for inhibitory receptor molecules such as LAG-3 in chronic bovine infections and future studies will elucidate the specific role of LAG-3 in bovine diseases.

Increase of cells expressing PD-L1 in bovine leukemia virus infection and enhancement of anti-viral immune responses in vitro via PD-L1 blockade.

The inhibitory receptor programmed death-1 (PD-1) and its ligand, programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) are involved in immune evasion mechanisms for several pathogens causing chronic infections. Blockade of the PD-1/PD-L1 pathway restores anti-virus immune responses, with concomitant reduction in viral load. In a previous report, we showed that, in bovine leukemia virus (BLV) infection, the expression of bovine PD-1 is closely associated with disease progression. However, the functions of bovine PD-L1 are still unknown. To investigate the role of PD-L1 in BLV infection, we identified the bovine PD-L1 gene, and examined PD-L1 expression in BLV-infected cattle in comparison with uninfected cattle. The deduced amino acid sequence of bovine PD-L1 shows high homology to the human and mouse PD-L1. The proportion of PD-L1 positive cells, especially among B cells, was upregulated in cattle with the late stage of the disease compared to cattle at the aleukemic infection stage or uninfected cattle. The proportion of PD-L1 positive cells correlated positively with prediction markers for the progression of the disease such as leukocyte number, virus load and virus titer whilst on the contrary, it inversely correlated with the degree of interferon-gamma expression. Blockade of the PD-1/PD-L1 pathway in vitro by PD-L1-specific antibody upregulated the production of interleukin-2 and interferon-gamma, and correspondingly, downregulated the BLV provirus load and the proportion of BLV-gp51 expressing cells. These data suggest that PD-L1 induces immunoinhibition in disease progressed cattle during chronic BLV infection. Therefore, PD-L1 would be a potential target for developing immunotherapies against BLV infection.

Analysis of transcriptional activities of the Meq proteins present in highly virulent Marek's disease virus strains, RB1B and Md5.

Marek's disease virus (MDV) is an oncogenic herpesvirus that causes malignant lymphomas in chickens. Recent field isolates of MDV have tended to exhibit increasing virulence, and MDV strains are currently classified into four categories based on their relative virulence. Meq, a putative MDV oncoprotein, resembles the Jun/Fos family of basic leucine zipper (bZIP) transcription factors and can regulate the expression of viral and cellular genes as a homodimer or as a heterodimer with a variety of bZIP family proteins. MDV isolates display distinct diversity and point mutations in Meq, which may contribute to changes in the transcriptional activities of Meq and subsequently, to observed increases in MDV oncogenicity. In this study, we introduced mutations into the meq gene and used dual luciferase reporter assays to analyze the transcriptional activities of the resulting Meq proteins to determine whether distinct mutations in Meq could be responsible for differences in transcriptional activity among MDV strains. A proline-to-alanine substitution at position 217, the second position of one of the proline direct repeats in the transactivation domain, enhanced the transactivation activity of Meq. In addition, we found that two substitutions at positions 283 and 320 affected transactivation activity. These results suggest that the distinct diversity of and point mutations in the Meq proteins are responsible for differences in transactivation activity among MDV strains.

Molecular detection of Anaplasma phagocytophilum in cattle and Ixodes persulcatus ticks.

The tick-borne pathogen, Anaplasma phagocytophilum (A. phagocytophilum), the causative agent of human granulocytic anaplasmosis (HGA), is increasingly becoming a public health concern as an aetiological agent for emerging infectious disease. We found A. phagocytophilum infection in a pooled sample of field-collected Ixodes persulcatus (I. persulcatus) ticks from one district in Hokkaido, Japan. Thus, to further investigate the prevalence in field-collected ticks, we used PCR assays targeting the A. phagocytophilum gene encoding 44 kDa major outer membrane protein (p44) for screening of I. persulcatus ticks and samples from cattle from pastures. Out of the 281 I. persulcatus ticks, 20 (7.1%) were found to harbor A. phagocytophilum DNA. The infection rate for A. phagocytophilum in cattle was 3.4% (42/1251). In future studies, it will be necessary to investigate effects of the infection in order to understand its pathogenesis of A. phagocytophilum in domestic animals.

Cross immunity with Haemaphysalis longicornis glutathione S-transferase reduces an experimental Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus infestation.

Recombinant Glutathione S-transferase of Haemaphysalis longicornis (rGST-Hl) was expressed in Escherichia coli, purified by affinity chromatography and used in the immunization of cattle. Western blot analysis showed positive antibody response in cattle immunized with rGST-Hl. The tests also showed that immunized bovine sera recognize native Rhipicephalus microplus proteins in different tissue extracts. Furthermore, the vaccine potential of rGST-Hl was investigated against infestation of Hereford cattle by R. microplus. Vaccination of cattle with rGST-Hl conferred partial cross-protection immunity against R. microplus. Considering the effect on number of engorged ticks, egg laying capacity and egg fertility, the overall efficacy of vaccination was of 57%, as compared with control group.

Molecular identification and expression analysis of lipocalins from blood feeding taiga tick, Ixodes persulcatus Schulze.

Lipocalins have been known for their several biological activities in blood-sucking arthropods. Recently, the identification and characterization of lipocalins from Ixodes ricinus (LIRs) have been reported and functions of lipocalins are well documented. In this study, we have characterized four Ixodes persulcatus lipocalins that were discovered while analyzing I. persulcatus tick salivary gland EST library. We show that the four I. persulcatus lipocalins, here after named LIPERs (lipocalin from I. persulcatus) are 28.8-94.4% identical to LIRs from I. ricinus. Reverse transcriptase-PCR analysis revealed that lipocalin genes were expressed specifically in the salivary glands throughout life cycle stages of the ticks and were up-regulated by blood feeding. The specific expressions were also confirmed by Western blotting analysis. Furthermore, to investigate whether native lipocalins are secreted into the host during tick feeding, the reactivity of anti-serum raised against saliva of adult ticks to recombinant lipocalins was tested by Western blotting. The lipocalins are potentially secreted into the host during tick feeding as revealed by specific reactivity of recombinant lipocalins with mouse antibodies to I. persulcatus tick saliva. Preliminary vaccination of mice with recombinant lipocalins elicited that period to reach engorgement was significantly delayed and the engorgement weight was significantly reduced as compared to the control. Further elucidation of the biological functions of LIPERs are required to fully understand the pathways involved in the modulation of host immune responses.

Genetic analysis and development of species-specific PCR assays based on ITS-1 region of rRNA in bovine Eimeria parasites.

At present, morphological characteristics of oocyst is the only achievable method for the identification of bovine coccidia to the species level. In this study, the internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS-1) region of ribosomal RNA genes of six bovine Eimeria species; E. alabamensis, E. auburnensis, E. bovis, E. cylindrica, E. ellipsoidalis and E. zuernii, were sequenced and analyzed the phylogenetic relationship among them. In pair-wise alignment, the sequences among the same species had high homology of over 90%. E. bovis and E. zuernii were closely related within the same cluster. This cluster and E. alabamensis were distant from major cluster of bovine coccidia that included E. auburnensis, E. cylindrica and E. ellipsoidalis. Species-specific PCR assays based on the amplification of the ITS-1 region were also developed to identify the 6 pathogens. The ITS-1 region of each Eimeria species had sufficient inter-specific sequence variation enough to design the primer sets that differentially amplified each target species. This PCR assay for the detection and differentiation of Eimeria parasite showed higher sensitivity when compared to the conventional oocyst-morphological examination. This is the first attempt for the identification of 6 bovine Eimeria parasites in the genomic level and may provide as useful methods for diagnosis and epidemiology of bovine coccidial infection.

Molecular cloning and expression analysis of bovine programmed death-1.

Recent work has shown that PD-1, an immune inhibitory receptor, is involved in mechanisms for down-regulating immune responses during tumor progression or chronic viral infection. However, in the case of bovine diseases, there have been no reports on this molecule due to lack of information about bovine PD-1. In this study, we performed identification and preliminary characterization of the bovine PD-1 gene in two breeds of cattle. We cloned full cDNA sequences encoding for PD-1 from both Holstein-Friesian and Japanese Black breeds, and found that both of the genes encoded a 282-amino acid protein, which had a signal sequence, transmembrane domain and an immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motif. This bovine PD-1 showed 72.9% and 65.6% homology to human and mouse PD-1, respectively, both of which have been well characterized and documented. Quantitative real-time PCR analysis showed that bovine PD-1 is expressed predominantly in T-cells (such as CD4(+) and CD8(+) cells) and among PBMCs, and is strongly upregulated on T-cell stimulation via ConA. A limited number of cattle were tested yet, as expected, the degree of PD-1 mRNA expression in CD4(+) and CD8(+) T-cells was greater in cattle with bovine leukemia virus-induced lymphoma than in uninfected cattle. Further studies to characterize the functions of bovine PD-1 are therefore warranted, in order to elucidate the mechanism of the immunosuppression associated with progression of several diseases and therapy in cattle.

Cytokine profiles in chickens infected with virulent and avirulent Marek's disease viruses: interferon-gamma is a key factor in the protection of Marek's disease by vaccination.

Marek's disease has been controlled byvaccination with avirulent strains of MDV. However, the protection mechanism following vaccination is not fully understood. In this study immune responses of PBMC and splenocytes derived from vaccinated chickens challenged with virulent MDV were examined using real-time PCR and ELISA. Higher levels of IFN-gamma induction were observed in chickens vaccinated during the latent phase of infection with virulent MDV than in similarly challenged, unvaccinated chickens. Furthermore, the mean expression of IFNGR2 and IFN regulatory factor-3 mRNAs was significantly higher in vaccinated than in unvaccinated chickens. These results show that IFN-gamma could be one of the important factors in prevention of MD by vaccination and is effective during the latent phase of the infection.

Molecular detection of trypanosomes in cattle in South America and genetic diversity of Trypanosoma evansi based on expression-site-associated gene 6.

In South American countries, trypanosomiasis as a result of Trypanosoma evansi and Trypanosoma vivax infections causes significant economic losses in livestock. The objectives of this study were to characterize the epidemiology of bovine trypanosomiasis in South America and to draw a comparison between South American and Asian T. evansi isolates based on the polymorphisms in their transferrin receptor encoding gene 6. We assessed the prevalence rates of T. evansi and T. vivax infections in cattle in different regions of Peru and Bolivia using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and found that, in Lima and Pucallpa in the Republic of Peru, T. evansi infection rates were 5.8% (6/104) and 2.5% (5/195), respectively, while in Santa Cruz, Republic of Bolivia, the infection rate for T. evansi was 11.5% (59/510). The prevalence rates of T. vivax in Lima and Santa Cruz were 3.8% (4/104) and 0.9% (5/510), respectively. In T. evansi, uptake of host transferrin is mediated by a receptor derived from the two expression site-associated genes 6 and 7 (ESAG6 and ESAG7). We previously showed that the ESAG6 depicts genetic diversity among different isolates of T. evansi in Asia. In this study, we cloned and sequenced the ESAG6 genes from T. evansi isolates from South America, and found, in addition to some of the previously observed variants, 20 novel variants of ESAG6 genes which could be categorized into three new clades among the various isolates. To conclude, the results obtained in this study suggest that T. evansi isolates from South America are more diverse than the Asian isolates.