Roles of Reactive Carbonyl Species (RCS) in Plant Response to Abiotic Stress.

Abiotic and biotic stress conditions lead to production of reactive carbonyl species (RCS) which are lipid peroxide derivatives and have detrimental effects on plant cells especially at high concentrations. There are several molecules that can be classified in RCS; among them, 4-hydroxy-(E)-2-nonenal (HNE) and acrolein are widely recognized and studied because of their toxicity. The toxicity mechanisms of RCS are well known in animals but their roles in plant systems especially signaling aspects in metabolism need to be addressed. This chapter focuses on the production mechanisms of RCS in plants as well as how plants scavenge and modify them to prevent irreversible damage in the cell. We aimed to get a comprehensive look at the literature to summarize the signaling roles of RCS in plant metabolism and their interaction with other signaling mechanisms such as highly recognized reactive oxygen species (ROS) signaling. Changing climate promotes more severe abiotic stress effects on plants which also decrease yield on the field. The effects of abiotic stress conditions on RCS metabolism are also gathered in this chapter including their signaling roles during abiotic stresses. Different methods of measuring RCS in plants are also presented in this chapter to draw more attention to the study of RCS metabolism in plants.

Differential regulation of reactive oxygen species in dimorphic chloroplasts of single cell C4 plant Bienertia sinuspersici during drought and salt stress.

Single cell C4 (SCC4) plants, discovered around two decades ago, are promising materials for efforts for genetic engineering of C4 photosynthesis into C3 crops. Unlike C4 plants with Kranz anatomy, they exhibit a fully functional C4 photosynthesis in just a single cell and do not require mesophyll and bundle sheath cell spatial separation. Bienertia sinuspersici is one such SCC4 plant, with NAD-malic enzyme (NAD-ME) subtype C4 photosynthesis. Its chlorenchyma cell consist of two compartments, peripheral compartment (PC), analogous to mesophyll cell, and central compartment (CC), analogous to bundle sheath cell. Since oxidative stress creates an important constraint for plants under salinity and drought, we comparatively examined the response of enzymatic antioxidant system, H2O2 and TBARS contents, peroxiredoxin Q, NADPH thioredoxin reductase C, and plastid terminal oxidase protein levels of PC chloroplasts (PCC) and CC chloroplasts (CCC). Except for protein levels, these parameters were also examined on the whole leaf level, as well as catalase and NADPH oxidase activities, water status and growth parameters, and levels of C4 photosynthesis related transcripts. Many C4 photosynthesis related transcript levels were elevated, especially under drought. Activities of dehydroascorbate reductase and especially peroxidase were elevated under drought in both compartments (CCC and PCC). Even though decreases of antioxidant enzyme activities were more prevalent in PCC, and the examined redox regulating protein levels, especially of peroxiredoxin Q, were elevated in CCC under both stresses, PCC was less damaged by either stress. These suggest PCC is more tolerant and has other means of preventing or alleviating oxidative damage.

A stratagem for primary root elongation under moderate salt stress in the halophyte Schrenkiella parvula.

Schrenkiella parvula, an Arabidopsis-related halophyte, grows around Lake Tuz (Salt) in Turkey and can survive up to 600 mM NaCl. Here, we performed physiological studies on the roots of S. parvula and A. thaliana seedlings cultivated under a moderate salt condition (100 mM NaCl). Interestingly, S. parvula germinated and grew at 100 mM NaCl, but germination did not occur at salt concentrations above 200 mM. In addition, primary roots elongated much faster at 100 mM NaCl, while being thinner with fewer roots hair, than under NaCl-free conditions. Salt-induced root elongation was due to epidermal cell elongation, but meristem size and meristematic DNA replication were reduced. The expression of genes related to auxin response and biosynthesis was also reduced. Application of exogenous auxin abolished the changes in primary root elongation, suggesting that auxin reduction is the main trigger for root architectural changes in response to moderate salinity in S. parvula. In A. thaliana seeds, germination was maintained up to 200 mM NaCl, but post-germination root elongation was significantly inhibited. Furthermore, primary roots did not promote elongation even under fairly low salt conditions. Compared to A. thaliana, cell death and ROS content in primary roots of salt-stressed plants were significantly lower in S. parvula. These changes in the roots of S. parvula seedlings may be an adaptive strategy to reach lower salinity by advancing into deeper soils, while being impaired by moderate salt stress.

Differential responses of the scavenging systems for reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive carbonyl species (RCS) to UV-B irradiation in Arabidopsis thaliana and its high altitude perennial relative Arabis alpina.

The present work aimed to compare antioxidant response and lipid peroxide detoxification capacity of an arctic-alpine species Arabis alpina to its close relative model species Arabidopsis thaliana under acute short duration (3 h and 6 h) UV-B stress (4.6 and 8.2 W/m2). After 3 and 6 h exposure to UV-B, A. alpina showed lower lipid peroxidation and H2O2 accumulation when compared to A. thaliana. Moreover, Fv/Fm value of A. thaliana dropped to 0.70, while A. alpina dropped to 0.75 indicating better protection of PSII in this species. For elucidation of the antioxidant response, activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POX), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), glutathione reductase (GR) and dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR) were measured. SOD induction with 6 h of UV-B was more prominent in A. alpina. Also, A. alpina had higher chloroplastic FeSOD activity when compared to A. thaliana. APX activity was also significantly induced in A. alpina, while its activity decreased at 3 h or did not change at 6 h in A. thaliana. A. alpina was able to maintain constant CAT activity, but drastic decreases were observed in A. thaliana at both time points. Moreover, A. alpina was able to maintain or induce aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH), alkenal reductases (AERs) and glutathione-S-transferases (GST) activity, while an opposite trend was observed in A. thaliana. These findings indicate that A. alpina was able to maintain/induce its antioxidant defence and lipid peroxide detoxification conferring better protection against UV-B.

Melatonin mitigates UV-B stress via regulating oxidative stress response, cellular redox and alternative electron sinks in Arabidopsis thaliana.

Melatonin plays an active role in neutralizing free radicals, especially by triggering the defense system and certain enzymes that work under stress in both mammals and plant systems. Exposure to ultraviolet (UV-B) stress can be deadly for plants since UV-B can induce production of reactive oxygen species and damage nucleic acids. In the present study, to uncover the possible alleviative role of melatonin against UV-B stress, Arabidopsis thaliana plants were treated with melatonin (10 µM) and were exposed to UV-B stress for 90 min and 180 min (46 and 92 kJ m-2 d-1). Plants treated with melatonin had lower lipid peroxidation levels and higher Fv/Fm values at both time points. UV-B stress-induced activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione reductase (GR) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX), but no additional induction was observed in melatonin treated groups. Moreover, melatonin differentially regulated the expression of glutathione peroxidase 2 (GPX2) and GPX7 genes under UV-B stress. Melatonin treatment did not have any effect on glutathione biosynthesis and catabolism genes. However, expression of alternative oxidase 1a (AOX1a) and AOX1d were lower in UV-B + melatonin treated plants when compared to only UV-B treated plants, which indicates lower oxidative load in mitochondria.

The involvement of gamma-aminobutyric acid shunt in the endoplasmic reticulum stress response of Arabidopsis thaliana.

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the main site of secretory protein production and folding and its homeostasis under environmental stress is vital for the maintenance of the protein secretory pathway. The loss of homeostasis and accumulation of unfolded proteins in the ER is referred to as ER stress. Although, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is an important regulator of stress response in plants, its roles during ER stress remains unclear. This study investigated the involvement of GABA in the ER stress response of plants. For this, changes in GABA metabolism under ER stress was analysed in Arabidopsis thaliana, then to study the response of the ER-folding machinery, plants were treated with exogenous GABA under ER stress. The antibiotic tunicamycin, which inhibits N-glycosylation was used to specifically induce ER stress. This stress up-regulated the expression of five glutamate decarboxylase (GAD) genes except GAD2 and GABA content of A. thaliana plants increased with an increasing concentration of tunicamycin (0.1 µg ml-1 and 0.25 µg ml-1). Moreover, expressions of genes involved in the conversion of GABA to succinate was also induced, while genes involved in transport across plasma and mitochondrial membrane showed no response to ER stress. The exogenous treatment of plants with 1-and 5-mM GABA increased plant performance under ER stress but 0.1 mM proved ineffective. Plants treated with GABA under ER stress had decreased expression of ER stress marker genes such as BIP1, BIP3 or CNX, but the expression of genes related to ER stress perception or ER-associated protein degradation showed no changes with respect to GABA treatments.

Understanding the Role of the Antioxidant System and the Tetrapyrrole Cycle in Iron Deficiency Chlorosis.

Iron deficiency chlorosis (IDC) is an abiotic stress often experienced by soybean, owing to the low solubility of iron in alkaline soils. Here, soybean lines with contrasting Fe efficiencies were analyzed to test the hypothesis that the Fe efficiency trait is linked to antioxidative stress signaling via proper management of tissue Fe accumulation and transport, which in turn influences the regulation of heme and non heme containing enzymes involved in Fe uptake and ROS scavenging. Inefficient plants displayed higher oxidative stress and lower ferric reductase activity, whereas root and leaf catalase activity were nine-fold and three-fold higher, respectively. Efficient plants do not activate their antioxidant system because there is no formation of ROS under iron deficiency; while inefficient plants are not able to deal with ROS produced under iron deficiency because ascorbate peroxidase and superoxide dismutase are not activated because of the lack of iron as a cofactor, and of heme as a constituent of those enzymes. Superoxide dismutase and peroxidase isoenzymatic regulation may play a determinant role: 10 superoxide dismutase isoenzymes were observed in both cultivars, but iron superoxide dismutase activity was only detected in efficient plants; 15 peroxidase isoenzymes were observed in the roots and trifoliate leaves of efficient and inefficient cultivars and peroxidase activity levels were only increased in roots of efficient plants.

Reactive oxygen species and redox regulation in mesophyll and bundle sheath cells of C4 plants.

Redox regulation, antioxidant defence, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) signalling are critical in performing and tuning metabolic activities. However, our concepts have mostly been developed for C3 plants since Arabidopsis thaliana has been the major model for research. Efforts to convert C3 plants to C4 to increase yield (such as IRRI's C4 Rice Project) entail a better understanding of these processes in C4 plants. Various photosynthetic enzymes that take part in light reactions and carbon reactions are regulated via redox components, such as thioredoxins as redox transmitters and peroxiredoxins. Hence, understanding redox regulation in the mesophyll and bundle sheath chloroplasts of C4 plants is of paramount importance: it appears impossible to utilize efficient C4 photosynthesis without understanding its exact redox needs and the regulation mechanisms used during light reactions. In this review, we discuss current knowledge on redox regulation in C3 and C4 plants, with special emphasis on the mesophyll and bundle sheath differences that are found in C4. In these two cell types in C4 plants, linear and cyclic electron transport in the chloroplasts operate differentially when compared to C3 chloroplasts, changing the redox needs of the cell. Therefore, our focus is on photosynthetic light reactions, ROS production dynamics, antioxidant defence, and thiol-based redox regulation, with the aim of providing an overview of our current knowledge.

Interplay between the unfolded protein response and reactive oxygen species: a dynamic duo.

Secretory proteins undergo modifications such as glycosylation and disulphide bond formation before proper folding, and move to their final destination via the endomembrane system. Accumulation of unfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) due to suboptimal environmental conditions triggers a response called the unfolded protein response (UPR), which induces a set of genes that elevate protein folding capacity in the ER. This review aims to establish a connection among ER stress, UPR, and reactive oxygen species (ROS), which remains an unexplored topic in plants. For this, we focused on mechanisms of ROS production originating from ER stress, the interaction between ER stress and overall ROS signalling process in the cell, and the interaction of ER stress with other organellar ROS signalling pathways such as of the mitochondria and chloroplasts. The roles of the UPR during plant hormone signalling and abiotic and biotic stress responses are also discussed in connection with redox and ROS signalling.

Endoplasmic reticulum stress regulates glutathione metabolism and activities of glutathione related enzymes in Arabidopsis.

Stress conditions generate an extra load on protein folding machinery in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and if the ER cannot overcome this load, unfolded proteins accumulate in the ER lumen, causing ER stress. ER lumen localised protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) catalyses the generation of disulfide bonds in conjugation with ER oxidoreductase1 (ERO1) during protein folding. Mismatched disulfide bonds are reduced by the conversion of GSH to GSSG. Under prolonged ER stress, GSH pool is oxidised and H2O2 is produced via increased activity of PDI-ERO1. However, it is not known how glutathione metabolism is regulated under ER stress in plants. So, in this study, ER stress was induced with tunicamycin (0.15, 0.3, 0.45µg mL-1 Tm) in Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. Glutathione content was increased by ER stress, which was accompanied by induction of glutathione biosynthesis genes (GSH1, GSH2). Also, the apoplastic glutathione degradation pathway (GGT1) was induced. Further, the activities of glutathione reductase (GR), dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR), glutathione peroxidase (GPX) and glutathione S-transferase (GST) were increased under ER stress. Results also showed that chloroplastic GPX genes were specifically downregulated with ER stress. This is the first report on regulation of glutathione metabolism and glutathione related enzymes in response to ER stress in plants.

Changes in redox regulation during transition from C3 to single cell C4 photosynthesis in Bienertia sinuspersici.

Bienertia sinuspersici performs single cell C4 photosynthesis without Kranz anatomy. Peripheral and central cytoplasmic compartments in a single chlorenchyma cell act as mesophyll cells and bundle sheath cells. Development of this specialized mechanism is gradual during plant development. Young leaves perform C3 photosynthesis, while mature leaves have complete C4 cycle. The aim of this work was to investigate changes in redox regulation and antioxidant defence during transition from C3 to single cell C4 photosynthesis in B. sinuspersici leaves. First, we confirmed gradual development of C4 with protein blot and qRT-PCR analysis of C4 enzymes. After this activities and isoenzymes of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POX), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), glutathione reductase (GR), dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR) and H2O2 and TBARS and glutathione pool and redox status (GSH/GSSG) were determined in young, developing and mature leaves during transition from C3 to single cell C4 photosynthesis. Activities of SOD, APX and POX decrease, while GR and DHAR were increased. However, most striking results were the changes in isoenzyme patterns of SOD, CAT and GR which were gradual through transition to C4 photosynthesis.

NAC transcription factor JUNGBRUNNEN1 enhances drought tolerance in tomato.

Water deficit (drought stress) massively restricts plant growth and the yield of crops; reducing the deleterious effects of drought is therefore of high agricultural relevance. Drought triggers diverse cellular processes including the inhibition of photosynthesis, the accumulation of cell-damaging reactive oxygen species and gene expression reprogramming, besides others. Transcription factors (TF) are central regulators of transcriptional reprogramming and expression of many TF genes is affected by drought, including members of the NAC family. Here, we identify the NAC factor JUNGBRUNNEN1 (JUB1) as a regulator of drought tolerance in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). Expression of tomato JUB1 (SlJUB1) is enhanced by various abiotic stresses, including drought. Inhibiting SlJUB1 by virus-induced gene silencing drastically lowers drought tolerance concomitant with an increase in ion leakage, an elevation of hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) levels and a decrease in the expression of various drought-responsive genes. In contrast, overexpression of AtJUB1 from Arabidopsis thaliana increases drought tolerance in tomato, alongside with a higher relative leaf water content during drought and reduced H2 O2 levels. AtJUB1 was previously shown to stimulate expression of DREB2A, a TF involved in drought responses, and of the DELLA genes GAI and RGL1. We show here that SlJUB1 similarly controls the expression of the tomato orthologs SlDREB1, SlDREB2 and SlDELLA. Furthermore, AtJUB1 directly binds to the promoters of SlDREB1, SlDREB2 and SlDELLA in tomato. Our study highlights JUB1 as a transcriptional regulator of drought tolerance and suggests considerable conservation of the abiotic stress-related gene regulatory networks controlled by this NAC factor between Arabidopsis and tomato.

Halophytes as a source of salt tolerance genes and mechanisms: a case study for the Salt Lake area, Turkey.

The worst case scenario of global climate change predicts both drought and salinity would be the first environmental factors restricting agriculture and natural ecosystems, causing decreased crop yields and plant growth that would directly affect human population in the next decades. Therefore, it is vital to understand the biology of plants that are already adapted to these extreme conditions. In this sense, extremophiles such as the halophytes offer valuable genetic information for understanding plant salinity tolerance and to improve the stress tolerance of crop plants. Turkey has ecological importance for its rich biodiversity with up to 3700 endemic plants. Salt Lake (Lake Tuz) in Central Anatolia, one of the largest hypersaline lakes in the world, is surrounded by salty marshes, with one of the most diverse floras in Turkey, where arid and semiarid areas have increased due to low rainfall and high evaporation during the summer season. Consequently, the Salt Lake region has a large number of halophytic, xerophytic and xero-halophytic plants. One good example is Eutrema parvulum (Schrenk) Al-Shehbaz & Warwick, which originates from the Salt Lake region, can tolerate up to 600mM NaCl. In recent years, the full genome of E. parvulum was published and it has been accepted as a model halophyte due to its close relationship (sequence identity in range of 90%) with Arabidopsis thaliana (L. Heynh.). In this context, this review will focus on tolerance mechanisms involving hormone signalling, accumulation of compatible solutes, ion transporters, antioxidant defence systems, reactive oxygen species (ROS) signalling mechanism of some lesser-known extremophiles growing in the Salt Lake region. In addition, current progress on studies conducted with E. parvulum will be evaluated to shed a light on future prospects for improved crop tolerance.

The effects of induced production of reactive oxygen species in organelles on endoplasmic reticulum stress and on the unfolded protein response in arabidopsis.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Accumulation of unfolded proteins caused by inefficient chaperone activity in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is termed 'ER stress', and it is perceived by a complex gene network. Induction of these genes triggers a response termed the 'unfolded protein response' (UPR). If a cell cannot overcome the accumulation of unfolded proteins, the ER-associated degradation (ERAD) system is induced to degrade those proteins. In addition to other factors, reactive oxygen species (ROS) are also produced during oxidative protein-folding in the ER. It has been shown in animal systems that there is a tight association between mitochondrial ROS and ER stress. However, in plants there are no reports concerning how induced ROS production in mitochondria and chloroplasts affects ER stress and if there is a possible role of organelle-originated ROS as a messenger molecule in the unfolded protein response. To address this issue, electron transport in chloroplasts and mitochondria and carnitine acetyl transferase (CAT) activity in peroxisomes were inhibited in wild-type Arabidopsis thaliana to induce ROS production. Expression of UPR genes was then investigated. METHODS: Plants of A. thaliana ecotype Col-0 were treated with various H2O2- and ROS-producing agents specific to different organelles, including the mitochondria, chloroplasts and peroxisomes. The expression of ER stress sensor/transducer genes (bZIP28, bZIP17, IRE1A, IRE1B, BiP1, BiP3), genes related to protein folding (CNX, ERO1) and ERAD genes (HRD1, SEL1, DER1, UBC32) were evaluated by qRT-PCR analysis. KEY RESULTS: Relatively low concentrations of ROS were more effective for induction of the ER stress response. Mitochondrial and chloroplastic ROS production had different induction mechanisms for the UPR and ER stress responses. CONCLUSIONS: Chloroplast- and mitochondria-originated ROS have distinct roles in triggering the ER stress response. In general, low concentrations of ROS induced the transcription of ER stress-related genes, which can be attributed to the roles of ROS as secondary messengers. This is the first time that ROS production in organelles has been shown to affect the ER stress response in a plant system.

Preferential expression of a bromoperoxidase in sporophytes of a red alga, Pyropia yezoensis.

A 2,158 bp cDNA (PyBPO1) encoding a bromoperoxidase (BPO) of 625 amino acids was isolated from Pyropia yezoensis. Phylogenetic analysis using amino acid sequences of BPOs suggested that P. yezoensis and cyanobacteria were grouped in the same clade and separated from brown algae. Genomic Southern blot analysis suggested that PyBPO1 existed as a single copy per haploid genome. RT-PCR revealed that PyBPO1 was actively expressed in filamentous sporophytes but repressed in leafy gametophytes under normal growth conditions. High expression levels of PyBPO1 in sporophytes were observed when sporophytes were grown under gametophyte conditions, suggesting that preferential expression of PyBPO1 occurs during the sporophyte phase. BPO activity of cell-free extracts from sporophytes and gametophytes was examined by activity staining on native PAGE gel using o-dianisidine. One activity band was detected in sporophyte sample, but not in gametophyte sample. In addition, we found that bromide and iodide were effective substrate, but chloride was not. BPO activity was observed-likely in chloroplasts-when sporophyte cells were incubated with o-dianisidine and hydrogen peroxide. Cellular BPO staining showed the same halogen preference identified by in-gel BPO staining. Based on GS-MS analysis, bromoform was detected in medium containing sporophytes. Bromoform was not detected under dark culture conditions but was detected in the culture exposed to low light intensity (5 µmol m(-2) s(-1)) and increased under a moderate light intensity (30 µmol m(-2) s(-1)).

Changes in the alternative electron sinks and antioxidant defence in chloroplasts of the extreme halophyte Eutrema parvulum (Thellungiella parvula) under salinity.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Eutrema parvulum (synonym, Thellungiella parvula) is an extreme halophyte that thrives in high salt concentrations (100-150 mm) and is closely related to Arabidopsis thaliana. The main aim of this study was to determine how E. parvulum uses reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, antioxidant systems and redox regulation of the electron transport system in chloroplasts to tolerate salinity. METHODS: Plants of E. parvulum were grown for 30 d and then treated with either 50, 200 or 300 mm NaCl. Physiological parameters including growth and water relationships were measured. Activities of antioxidant enzymes were determined in whole leaves and chloroplasts. In addition, expressions of chloroplastic redox components such as ferrodoxin thioredoxin reductases (FTR), NADPH thioredoxin reductases (NTRC), thioredoxins (TRXs) and peroxiredoxins (PRXs), as well as genes encoding enzymes of the water-water cycle and proline biosynthesis were measured. KEY RESULTS: Salt treatment affected water relationships negatively and the accumulation of proline was increased by salinity. E. parvulum was able to tolerate 300 mm NaCl over long periods, as evidenced by H2O2 content and lipid peroxidation. While Ca(2+) and K(+) concentrations were decreased by salinity, Na(+) and Cl(-) concentrations increased. Efficient induction of activities and expressions of water-water cycle enzymes might prevent accumulation of excess ROS in chloroplasts and therefore protect the photosynthetic machinery in E. parvulum. The redox homeostasis in chloroplasts might be achieved by efficient induction of expressions of redox regulatory enzymes such as FTR, NTRC, TRXs and PRXs under salinity. CONCLUSIONS: E. parvulum was able to adapt to osmotic stress by an efficient osmotic adjustment mechanism involving proline and was able to regulate its ion homeostasis. In addition, efficient induction of water-water cycle enzymes and other redox regulatory components such as TRXs and PRXs in chloroplasts were able to protect the chloroplasts from salinity-induced oxidative stress.

Endoplasmic reticulum stress triggers ROS signalling, changes the redox state, and regulates the antioxidant defence of Arabidopsis thaliana.

Inefficient chaperone activity in endoplasmic reticulum (ER) causes accumulation of unfolded proteins and is called ER stress, which triggers the unfolded protein response. For proper oxidative protein folding, reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as H2O2 are produced in the ER. Although the role of ROS during abiotic stresses such as salinity is well documented, the role of ER-related ROS production and its signalling is not yet known. Moreover, how H2O2 production, redox regulation, and antioxidant defence are affected in salt-treated plants when ER protein-folding machinery is impaired needs to be elucidated. For this aim, changes in NADPH-oxidase-dependent ROS signalling and H2O2 content at sequential time intervals and after 48 h of ER stress, induced by tunicamycin (Tm), salinity, and their combination were determined in Arabidopsis thaliana. The main root growth was inhibited by ER stress, while low levels of Tm caused an increase in lateral root density. Salt stress and Tm induced the expression of ER-stress-related genes (bZIP17, bZIP28, bZIP60, TIN1, BiP1, BiP3) and ERO1. Tm induced expression of RBOHD and RBOHF, which led to an early increase in H2O2 and triggered ROS signalling. This study is the first report that ER stress induces the antioxidant system and the Asada-Halliwell pathway of A. thaliana in a similar way to salinity. ER stress caused oxidative damage, as evident by increased H2O2 accumulation, lipid peroxidation, and protein oxidation. As a result, this study shows that ER stress triggers ROS signalling, changes the redox state, and regulates the antioxidant defence of A. thaliana.

Strategies of ROS regulation and antioxidant defense during transition from C3 to C4 photosynthesis in the genus Flaveria under PEG-induced osmotic stress.

In the present study, we aimed to elucidate how strategies of reactive oxygen species (ROS) regulation and the antioxidant defense system changed during transition from C3 to C4 photosynthesis, by using the model genus Flaveria, which contains species belonging to different steps in C4 evolution. For this reason, four Flaveria species that have different carboxylation mechanisms, Flaveria robusta (C3), Flaveria anomala (C3-C4), Flaveria brownii (C4-like) and Flaveria bidentis (C4), were used. Physiological (growth, relative water content (RWC), osmotic potential), and photosynthetical parameters (stomatal conductance (g(s)), assimilation rate (A), electron transport rate (ETR)), antioxidant defense enzymes (superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POX), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), glutathione reductases(GR)) and their isoenzymes, non-enzymatic antioxidant contents (ascorbate, glutathione), NADPH oxidase (NOX) activity, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) content and lipid peroxidation levels (TBARS) were measured comparatively under polyethylene glycol (PEG 6000) induced osmotic stress. Under non-stressed conditions, there was a correlation only between CAT (decreasing), APX and GR (both increasing) and the type of carboxylation pathways through C3 to C4 in Flaveria species. However, they responded differently to PEG-induced osmotic stress in regards to antioxidant defense. The greatest increase in H2O2 and TBARS content was observed in C3 F. robusta, while the least substantial increase was detected in C4-like F. brownii and C4 F. bidentis, suggesting that oxidative stress is more effectively countered in C4-like and C4 species. This was achieved by a better induced enzymatic defense in F. bidentis (increased SOD, CAT, POX, and APX activity) and non-enzymatic antioxidants in F. brownii. As a response to PEG-induced oxidative stress, changes in activities of isoenzymes and also isoenzymatic patterns were observed in all Flaveria species, which might be related to ROS produced in different compartments of cells.

Reactive oxygen species regulation and antioxidant defence in halophytes.

Production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which are a by-product of normal cell metabolism in living organisms, is an inevitable consequence of aerobic life on Earth, and halophytes are no exception to this rule. The accumulation of ROS is elevated under different stress conditions, including salinity, due to a serious imbalance between their production and elimination. These ROS are highly toxic and, in the absence of protective mechanisms, can cause oxidative damage to lipids, proteins and DNA, leading to alterations in the redox state and further damage to the cell. Besides functioning as toxic by-products of stress metabolism, ROS are also important signal transduction molecules in controlling growth, development and responses to stress. Plants control the concentrations of ROS by an array of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants. Although a relation between enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant defence mechanisms and tolerance to salt stress has been reported, little information is available on ROS-mediated signalling, perception and specificity in different halophytic species. Hence, in this review, we describe recent advances in ROS homeostasis and signalling in response to salt, and discuss current understanding of ROS involvement in stress sensing, stress signalling and regulation of acclimation responses in halophytes. We also highlight the role of genetic, proteomic and metabolic approaches for the successful study of the complex relationship among antioxidants and their functions in halophytes, which would be critical in increasing salt tolerance in crop plants.