Assessing the implementation of a multi-component hypertension program in a Guatemalan under-resourced dynamic context: an application of the RE-AIM/PRISM extension for sustainability and health equity.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic necessitated rapid changes in healthcare delivery in Guatemala's public primary care settings. A new hypertension program, implemented as part of a type 2 hybrid trial since 2019, exemplifies an implementation effort amidst a changing context in an under-resourced setting. We assessed the implementation of an evidence-based intervention (EBI; protocol-based hypertension treatment) and one of its main implementation strategies (team-based collaborative care), raising implications for health equity and sustainability. We present innovative application of systems thinking visuals. METHODS: Conducting a convergent mixed methods analysis, we assessed implementation in response to contextual changes across five Ministry of Health (MoH) districts at the pandemic's onset. Utilizing quantitative programmatic data and qualitative interviews with stakeholders (n=18; health providers, administrators, study staff), we evaluated dimensions of "Reach, Effectiveness, Adoption, Implementation and Maintenance," RE-AIM (Reach, Implementation delivery + adaptations), and "Practical Robust Implementation and Sustainability Model," PRISM (Organizational perspective on the EBI, Fit, Implementation and sustainability infrastructure) frameworks. We assessed representativeness by comparing participants to census data. To assess implementation delivery, we built behavior-over-time (BOT) graphs with quantitative programmatic data (July 2019-July 2021). To assess adaptations and contextual changes, we performed matrix-based thematic qualitative analysis. We converged quantitative implementation delivery data + qualitative adaptations data in joint displays. Finally, we analyzed qualitative and quantitative results across RE-AIM/PRISM and health districts to identify equity and sustainability considerations. RESULTS: Contextual factors that facilitated program delivery included the perception that the EBI was beneficial, program champions, and staff communication. Key barriers to implementation delivery included competition with other primary care activities and limited implementation infrastructure (e.g., equipment, medications). Contextual changes related to COVID-19 hindered implementation delivery, threatened sustainability, and may have exacerbated inequities. However, adaptations that were planned enhanced implementation delivery and may have supported improved equity and sustainability. CONCLUSIONS: Recognition of an EBI's benefits and program champions are important for supporting initial uptake. The ability to plan adaptations amid rapid contextual changes has potential advantages for sustainability and equitable delivery. Systems thinking tools and mixed methods approaches may shed light on the relations between context, adaptations, and equitable and sustainable implementation. TRIAL REGISTRATION: NCT03504124.

Task Sharing and Remote Delivery of Brief Interpersonal Counseling for Venezuelan Migrants and Refugees Living in Peru during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Mixed-Methods Pilot Study.

Refugees and migrants experience an elevated risk for mental health problems and face significant barriers to receiving services. Interpersonal counseling (IPC-3) is a three-session intervention that can be delivered by non-specialists to provide psychological support and facilitate referrals for individuals in need of specialized care. We piloted IPC-3 delivered remotely by eight Venezuelan refugee and migrant women living in Peru. These counselors provided IPC-3 to Venezuelan refugee and migrant clients in Peru (n = 32) who reported psychological distress. Clients completed assessments of mental health symptoms at baseline and one-month post-intervention. A subset of clients (n = 15) and providers (n = 8) completed post-implementation qualitative interviews. Results showed that IPC-3 filled a gap in the system of mental health care for refugees and migrants in Peru. Some adaptations were made to IPC-3 to promote its relevance to the population and context. Non-specialist providers developed the skills and confidence to provide IPC-3 competently. Clients displayed large reductions in symptoms of depression (d = 1.1), anxiety (d = 1.4), post-traumatic stress (d = 1.0), and functional impairment (d = 0.8). Remote delivery of IPC-3 by non-specialists appears to be a feasible, acceptable, and appropriate strategy to address gaps and improve efficiency within the mental health system and warrants testing in a fully powered effectiveness study.

COVID-19 Attitudes and Vaccine Hesitancy among an Agricultural Community in Southwest Guatemala: A Cross-Sectional Survey.

Despite offering free-of-charge COVID-19 vaccines starting July 2021, Guatemala has one of the lowest vaccination rates in Latin America. From 28 September 2021 to 11 April 2022, we conducted a cross-sectional survey of community members, adapting a CDC questionnaire to evaluate COVID-19 vaccine access and hesitancy. Of 233 participants ≥ 12 years, 127 (55%) received ≥1 dose of COVID-19 and 4 (2%) reported prior COVID-19 illness. Persons ≥ 12 years old who were unvaccinated (n = 106) were more likely to be female (73% vs. 41%, p < 0.001) and homemakers (69% vs. 24%, p < 0.01) compared with vaccinated participants (n = 127). Among those ≥18 years, the main reported motivation for vaccination among vaccinated participants was to protect the health of family/friends (101/117, 86%); on the other hand, 40 (55%) unvaccinated persons reported little/no confidence in public health institutions recommending COVID-19 vaccination. Community- and/or home-based vaccination programs, including vaccination of families through the workplace, may better reach female homemakers and reduce inequities and hesitancy.

Assessing the implementation of a multi-component hypertension program in a Guatemalan under-resourced dynamic context: An application of the RE-AIM/PRISM extension for sustainability and health equity.

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic necessitated rapid changes in the delivery of care across public primary care settings in rural Guatemala in 2020. In response, a hypertension program implemented within the public primary care system required multiple adaptations, providing an illustrative example of dynamic implementation amidst changing context in an under-resourced setting. This study describes the evolvability of an evidence-based intervention (EBI; protocol-based hypertension treatment) and one of its main implementation strategies (team-based collaborative care) during the COVID-19 pandemic and discusses implications for health equity and sustainability. Methods: This convergent mixed methods analysis assessed implementation across five Ministry of Health districts during the initial phase of the pandemic. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected, analyzed, and integrated, informed by the RE-AIM (Reach, Effectiveness, Adoption, Implementation Maintenance) Framework's extension for sustainability, and its contextual enhancement, PRISM (Pragmatic, Robust, Implementation and Sustainability Model). For RE-AIM, we focused on the "Implementation" domain, operationalizing it qualitatively as continued delivery and adaptations to the EBI and implementation strategy, and quantitatively as the extent of delivery over time. We conducted 18 in-depth interviews with health providers / administrators (n=8) and study staff (n=10) and performed a matrix-based thematic-analysis. Qualitative results informed the selection of quantitative implementation summarized as behavior over time graphs. Quantitative implementation data and illustrative quotes are presented as joint displays. Results: In relation to implementation, several organic adaptations hindered delivery, threatened sustainability, and may have exacerbated health inequities. Planned adaptations enhanced program delivery and may have supported improved equity and sustainability. Salient PRISM factors that influenced implementation included "Organizational perspective of the EBI", "Fit" and "Implementation and sustainability infrastructure". Facilitators to continued delivery included the perception that the EBI is beneficial, program champions, and healthcare team organization. Barriers included the perception that the EBI is complicated, competition with other primary care activities, and temporary suspension of services due to COVID-19. Conclusions: Multi-level contextual changes led to numerous adaptations of the EBI and implementation strategy. Systems thinking approaches may shed light on how a program's sustainability and its equitable delivery are influenced by adaptations over time in response to dynamic, multi-level contextual factors. Trial registration: NCT03504124.

Explanatory models of hypertension in Guatemala: recognizing the perspectives of patients, family members, health care providers and administrators, and national-level health system stakeholders.

BACKGROUND: Uncontrolled hypertension is a major public health burden and the most common preventable risk factor for cardiovascular diseases in Guatemala and other low- and middle-income countries. Prior to an initial trial that evaluated a hypertension intervention in rural Guatemala, we collected qualitative information on the needs and knowledge gaps of hypertension care within Guatemala's public healthcare system. This analysis applied Kleinman's Explanatory Models of Illness to capture how patients, family members, community-, district-, and provincial-level health care providers and administrators, and national-level health system stakeholders understand hypertension.  METHODS: We conducted in-depth interviews with three types of participants: 1) national-level health system stakeholders (n = 17), 2) local health providers and administrators from district, and health post levels (25), and 3) patients and family members (19) in the departments of Sololá and Zacapa in Guatemala. All interviews were conducted in Spanish except for 6 Maya-Kaqchikel interviews. We also conducted focus group discussions with auxiliary nurses (3) and patients (3), one in Maya-Tz'utujil and the rest in Spanish. Through framework and matrix analysis, we compared understandings of hypertension by participant type using the Explanatory Model of Illness domains -etiology, symptoms, pathophysiology, course of illness, and treatment. RESULTS: Health providers and administrators, and patients described hypertension as an illness that spurs from emotional states like sadness, anger, and worry; is inherited and related to advanced age; and produces symptoms that include a weakened body, nerves, pain, and headaches. Patients expressed concerns about hypertension treatment's long-term consequences, despite trying to comply with treatment. Patients stated that they combine biomedical treatment (when available) with natural remedies (teas and plants). Health providers and administrators and family members stated that once patients feel better, they often disengage from treatment. National-level health system stakeholders referred to lifestyle factors as important causes, considered patients to typically be non-compliant, and identified budget limitations as a key barrier to hypertension care. The three groups of participants identified structural barriers to limited hypertension care (e.g., limited access to healthy food and unaffordability of medications). CONCLUSION: As understandings of hypertension vary between types of participants, it is important to describe their similarities and differences considering the role each has in the health system. Considering different perceptions of hypertension will enable better informed program planning and implementation efforts.

Challenges and lessons learned from the rapid operationalization of a prospective cohort to study the natural history and neurodevelopmental outcomes of postnatal Zika virus infection among infants and children in rural Guatemala.

During the course of the 2015-2017 outbreak of Zika virus (ZIKV) in the Americas, the emerging virus was recognized as a congenital infection that could damage the developing brain. As the Latin American ZIKV outbreak advanced, the scientific and public health community questioned if this newly recognized neurotropic flavivirus could affect the developing brain of infants and young children infected after birth. We report here the study design, methods and the challenges and lessons learned from the rapid operationalization of a prospective natural history cohort study aimed at evaluating the potential neurological and neurodevelopmental effects of postnatal ZIKV infection in infants and young children, which had become epidemic in Central America. This study enrolled a cohort of 500 mothers and their infants, along with nearly 400 children 1.5-3.5 years of age who were born during the initial phase of the ZIKV epidemic in a rural area of Guatemala. Our solutions and lessons learned while tackling real-life challenges may serve as a guide to other researchers carrying out studies of emerging infectious diseases of public health priority in resource-constrained settings.

Repeated Rapid Active Sampling Surveys Demonstrated a Rapidly Changing Zika Seroprevalence among Children in a Rural Dengue-endemic Region in Southwest Guatemala during the Zika Epidemic (2015-2016).

Although Central America is largely dengue virus (DENV)-endemic, the 2015-2016 Zika virus (ZIKV) pandemic brought new urgency to develop surveillance approaches capable of characterizing the rapidly changing disease burden in resource-limited settings. We conducted a pediatric DENV surveillance study in rural Guatemala, including serial cross-sectional surveys from April through September 2015 (Survey 1), in October-November 2015 (Survey 2), and January-February 2016 (Survey 3). Serum underwent DENV IgM MAC ELISA and polymerase chain reaction testing. Using banked specimens from Surveys 2 and 3, we expanded testing to include DENV 1-4 and ZIKV microneutralization (MN50), DENV NS1 IgG ELISA, and ZIKV anti-NS1 antibody Blockage of Binding (BoB) ELISA testing. Demographic risk factors for ZIKV BoB positivity were explored using multivariable generalized linear regression models. Of Survey 2 and 3 samples available (N = 382), DENV seroprevalence slightly increased (+1%-10% depending on the assay) during the surveillance period and increased with age. In contrast, ZIKV seroprevalence consistently increased over the 3-month period, including from 6% to 34% (P < 0.0001) and 10%-37% (P < 0.0001) using the MN50 ≥100 and BoB ELISA assays, respectively. Independent risk factors for ZIKV seropositivity included older age (prevalence ratio (PR)/year = 1.12, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.07-1.17) and primary caregiver literacy (PR = 2.80, CI = 1.30-6.06). Rapid active surveillance (RAS) surveys demonstrated a nearly 30% increase in ZIKV prevalence and a slight (≤ 10%) increase in DENV seroprevalence from October to November 2015 to January to February 2016 in rural southwest Guatemala, regardless of serologic assay used. RAS surveys may be a useful "off-the-shelf" tool to characterize arboviruses and other emerging pathogens rapidly in resource-limited settings.

Developing a Digital Technology System to Address COVID-19 Health Needs in Guatemala: A Scientific Diaspora Case Study.

Scientific diasporas are organized groups of professionals who work together to contribute to their country of origin. Since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, scientific diasporas around the world have focused their efforts to support the public health response in their countries of origin. As the first cases of COVID-19 were reported in Guatemala in March of 2020, a team of four Guatemalan nationals, residing abroad and in-country, started collaborating to tackle COVID-19 misinformation and issues with healthcare services navigation. Their collaboration was facilitated by FUNDEGUA, a Guatemalan nonprofit, which provided a legal framework to establish partnerships and fundraise. The team created a digital technological system called ALMA (Asistente de Logística Médica Automatizada in Spanish). A female character named ALMA was created to personify the digital information services, through social media profiles, an interactive website, a free national multilingual call center, and an artificial intelligence-based chatbot. More members joined the nascent interdisciplinary diaspora through professional/personal references or social media. ALMA provided a platform for Guatemalan nationals to contribute with their skillset to their country during a global crisis through flexible schedules and short- or long-term involvement. As the team grew, the services for query resolution and information dissemination expanded as well. The ALMA initiative shows that scientific diasporas can provide an avenue for professionals to contribute to Guatemala, regardless of their residence and job commitments.

[Mental health of Guatemalan health care workers during the COVID-19 pandemic: baseline findings from the HEROES cohort studySaúde mental dos trabalhadores da saúde guatemaltecos durante a pandemia de COVID-19: constatações basais do estudo da coorte HEROES]. / La salud mental de los trabajadores de salud en Guatemala durante la pandemia de COVID-19: resultados de base del estudio de cohortes HÉROES.

Objectives: To assess the baseline prevalence of mental health conditions and associated exposures in a cohort of health care workers (HCWs) in Guatemala. Methods: We analyzed baseline information from the 2020 Web-based COVID-19 Health Care Workers Study (HEROES)-Guatemala. Outcomes included mental distress and depressive symptoms. Exposures included COVID-19 experiences, sociodemographic characteristics, and job characteristics. We used crude and adjusted Poisson regression models in our analyses. Results: Of the 1801 HCWs who accepted to participate, 1522 (84.5%) completed the questionnaire; 1014 (66.8%) were women. Among the participants, 59.1% (95% confidence interval [CI] = 56.6, 61.5) screened positive for mental distress and 23% (95% CI = 20.9, 25.2) for moderate to severe depressive symptoms. COVID-19 experiences, sociodemographic characteristics, and job characteristics were associated with the study outcomes. Participants who were worried about COVID-19 infection were at higher risk of mental distress (relative risk [RR] = 1.47; 95% CI = 1.30, 1.66) and depressive symptoms (RR = 1.51; 95% CI = 1.17, 1.96). Similarly, the youngest participants were at elevated risk of mental distress (RR = 1.80; 95% CI = 1.24, 2.63) and depressive symptoms (OR = 4.58; 95% CI = 1.51, 13.87). Conclusions: Mental health conditions are highly prevalent among Guatemalan.

Objetivos: Avaliar a prevalência basal de condições de saúde mental e exposições associadas em uma coorte de trabalhadores da saúde (TS) na Guatemala. Métodos: Analisamos as informações da linha de base do estudo on-line sobre trabalhadores da saúde e a COVID-19 (HEROES), realizado em 2020 na Guatemala. Os desfechos incluíram angústia debilitante e sintomas de depressão. As exposições incluíram experiências com a COVID-19, características sociodemográficas e características do trabalho. Usamos em nossas análises modelos de regressão bruta e ajustada de Poisson. Resultados: Dos 1801 TS que concordaram em participar, 1522 (84,5%) preencheram o questionário, sendo que 1014 (66,8%) eram mulheres. Dentre esses participantes, 59,1% (intervalo de confiança [IC] de 95%=56,6; 61,5) apresentaram resultado positivo na triagem de angústia debilitante e 23% (IC 95%=20,9, 25,2) apresentaram resultado positivo para sintomas de depressão moderados a graves. Experiências com COVID-19, e características sociodemográficas e de trabalho apresentaram associação com os resultados do estudo. Os participantes que estavam preocupados com infecção por COVID-19 apresentaram maior risco de angústia debilitante (risco relativo [RR]=1,47; IC95%=1,30; 1,66) e sintomas de depressão (RR=1,51; IC 95% =1,17; 1,96). Da mesma maneira, os participantes mais jovens apresentaram alto risco de apresentarem angústia debilitante (RR=1,80; IC 95%=1,24; 2,63) e sintomas de depressão (OR=4,58; IC 95%=1,51; 13,87). Conclusões: Condições de saúde mental são altamente prevalentes entre os guatemaltecos.

Mental Health of Guatemalan Health Care Workers During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Baseline Findings From the HEROES Cohort Study.

Objectives. To assess the baseline prevalence of mental health conditions and associated exposures in a cohort of health care workers (HCWs) in Guatemala. Methods. We analyzed baseline information from the 2020 Web-based COVID-19 Health Care Workers Study (HEROES)-Guatemala. Outcomes included mental distress and depressive symptoms. Exposures included COVID-19 experiences, sociodemographic characteristics, and job characteristics. We used crude and adjusted Poisson regression models in our analyses. Results. Of the 1801 HCWs who accepted to participate, 1522 (84.5%) completed the questionnaire; 1014 (66.8%) were women. Among the participants, 59.1% (95% confidence interval [CI] = 56.6, 61.5) screened positive for mental distress and 23% (95% CI = 20.9, 25.2) for moderate to severe depressive symptoms. COVID-19 experiences, sociodemographic characteristics, and job characteristics were associated with the study outcomes. Participants who were worried about COVID-19 infection were at higher risk of mental distress (relative risk [RR] = 1.47; 95% CI = 1.30, 1.66) and depressive symptoms (RR = 1.51; 95% CI = 1.17, 1.96). Similarly, the youngest participants were at elevated risk of mental distress (RR = 1.80; 95% CI = 1.24, 2.63) and depressive symptoms (OR = 4.58; 95% CI = 1.51, 13.87). Conclusions. Mental health conditions are highly prevalent among Guatemalan HCWs. (Am J Public Health. 2022;112(S6):S602-S614. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2021.306648).

La salud mental de los trabajadores de salud en Guatemala durante la pandemia de COVID-19: resultados de base del estudio de cohortes HÉROES

[RESUMEN]. Objetivos. Evaluar la prevalencia de base de los trastornos de salud mental y exposiciones conexas en una cohorte de trabajadores de salud de Guatemala. Métodos Se analizó la información de base del estudio HÉROES (por COVID-19 HEalth caRe wOrkeRs Study, sobre los trabajadores de salud durante la pandemia) en Guatemala, realizado en línea en el 2020. Las variables de resultado fueron malestar psicológico y síntomas depresivos. Las exposiciones incluyeron expe- riencias con la COVID-19, características sociodemográficas y características del trabajo. En los análisis se utilizaron modelos de regresión de Poisson brutos y ajustados. Resultados. De los 1801 trabajadores de salud que aceptaron participar, 1522 (84,5%) completaron el cues- tionario; 1014 (66,8%) eran mujeres. De los participantes, 59,1% (intervalo de confianza de 95% [IC 95%] = 56,6-61,5) tuvo un tamizaje positivo para malestar psicológico y 23% (IC 95% = 20,9-25,2) para síntomas depresivos de moderados a graves. Las experiencias con la pandemia de COVID-19, las características sociodemográficas y las características del trabajo se correlacionaron con las variables de resultado del estudio. Los participantes que estaban preocupados por el contagio de la COVID-19 tuvieron un mayor riesgo de malestar psicológico (riesgo relativo [RR] = 1,47; IC 95% = 1,30-1,66) y síntomas depresivos (RR = 1,51; IC 95% = 1,17-1,96). Asimismo, los participantes más jóvenes presentaban un riesgo alto de malestar psicoló- gico (RR = 1,80; IC 95% = 1,24-2,63) y síntomas depresivos (razón de posibilidades [OR] = 4,58; IC 95% = 1,51-13,87). Conclusiones. Las afecciones de salud mental tienen una prevalencia sumamente alta en los trabajadores de salud de Guatemala.

[ABSTRACT]. Objectives. To assess the baseline prevalence of mental health conditions and associated exposures in a cohort of health care workers (HCWs) in Guatemala. Methods. We analyzed baseline information from the 2020 Web-based COVID-19 Health Care Workers Study (HEROES)–Guatemala. Outcomes included mental distress and depressive symptoms. Exposures included COVID-19 experiences, sociodemographic characteristics, and job characteristics. We used crude and adjus- ted Poisson regression models in our analyses. Results. Of the 1801 HCWs who accepted to participate, 1522 (84.5%) completed the questionnaire; 1014 (66.8%) were women. Among the participants, 59.1% (95% confidence interval [CI] = 56.6, 61.5) screened positive for mental distress and 23% (95% CI = 20.9, 25.2) for moderate to severe depressive symptoms. COVID-19 experiences, sociodemographic characteristics, and job characteristics were associated with the study outcomes. Participants who were worried about COVID-19 infection were at higher risk of mental distress (relative risk [RR] = 1.47; 95% CI = 1.30, 1.66) and depressive symptoms (RR = 1.51; 95% CI = 1.17, 1.96). Similarly, the youngest participants were at elevated risk of mental distress (RR = 1.80; 95% CI = 1.24, 2.63) and depressive symptoms (OR = 4.58; 95% CI = 1.51, 13.87). Conclusions. Mental health conditions are highly prevalent among Guatemalan.

[RESUMO]. Objetivos. Avaliar a prevalência basal de condições de saúde mental e exposições associadas em uma coorte de trabalhadores da saúde (TS) na Guatemala. Métodos. Analisamos as informações da linha de base do estudo on-line sobre trabalhadores da saúde e a COVID-19 (HEROES), realizado em 2020 na Guatemala. Os desfechos incluíram angústia debilitante e sintomas de depressão. As exposições incluíram experiências com a COVID-19, características sociodemo- gráficas e características do trabalho. Usamos em nossas análises modelos de regressão bruta e ajustada de Poisson. Resultados. Dos 1801 TS que concordaram em participar, 1522 (84,5%) preencheram o questionário, sendo que 1014 (66,8%) eram mulheres. Dentre esses participantes, 59,1% (intervalo de confiança [IC] de 95%=56,6; 61,5) apresentaram resultado positivo na triagem de angústia debilitante e 23% (IC 95%=20,9, 25,2) apresentaram resultado positivo para sintomas de depressão moderados a graves. Experiências com COVID-19, e características sociodemográficas e de trabalho apresentaram associação com os resul- tados do estudo. Os participantes que estavam preocupados com infecção por COVID-19 apresentaram maior risco de angústia debilitante (risco relativo [RR]=1,47; IC95%=1,30; 1,66) e sintomas de depressão (RR=1,51; IC 95% =1,17; 1,96). Da mesma maneira, os participantes mais jovens apresentaram alto risco de apresentarem angústia debilitante (RR=1,80; IC 95%=1,24; 2,63) e sintomas de depressão (OR=4,58; IC 95%=1,51; 13,87). Conclusões. Condições de saúde mental são altamente prevalentes entre os guatemaltecos.

A prospective cohort study of head circumference and its association with neurodevelopmental outcomes in infants and young children in rural Guatemala.

Microcephaly, an anthropometric marker of reduced brain volume and predictor of developmental disability, is rare in high-income countries. Recent reports show the prevalence of microcephaly to be much higher in lower resource settings. We calculated the prevalence of microcephaly in infants and young children (n = 642; age range = 0.1-35.9 months), examined trends in occipitofrontal circumference (OFC) growth in the year after birth and evaluated the relationship between OFC and performance on the Mullen Scales of Early Learning (MSEL) in rural Guatemala. Multivariable regression analyses adjusted for age were performed: (1) a model comparing concurrent MSEL performance and OFC at all visits per child, (2) concurrent OFC and MSEL performance by age group, and (3) OFC at enrollment and MSEL at final visit by age group. Prevalence of microcephaly ranged from 10.1% to 25.0%. OFC z-score decreased for most infants throughout the first year after birth. A significant positive association between continuous OFC measurement and MSEL score suggested that children with smaller OFC may do worse on ND tests conducted both concurrently and ∼1 year later. Results were variable when analyzed by OFC cutoff scores and stratified by 6-month age groups. OFC should be considered for inclusion in developmental screening assessments at the individual and population level, especially when performance-based testing is not feasible.

La salud mental de los trabajadores de salud en Guatemala durante la pandemia de COVID-19: resultados de base del estudio de cohortes HÉROES / Mental health of Guatemalan health care workers during the COVID-19 pandemic: baseline findings from the HEROES cohort study / Saúde mental dos trabalhadores da saúde guatemaltecos durante a pandemia de COVID-19: constatações basais do estudo da coorte HEROES

RESUMEN Objetivos. Evaluar la prevalencia de base de los trastornos de salud mental y exposiciones conexas en una cohorte de trabajadores de salud de Guatemala. Métodos Se analizó la información de base del estudio HÉROES (por COVID-19 HEalth caRe wOrkeRs Study, sobre los trabajadores de salud durante la pandemia) en Guatemala, realizado en línea en el 2020. Las variables de resultado fueron malestar psicológico y síntomas depresivos. Las exposiciones incluyeron experiencias con la COVID-19, características sociodemográficas y características del trabajo. En los análisis se utilizaron modelos de regresión de Poisson brutos y ajustados. Resultados. De los 1801 trabajadores de salud que aceptaron participar, 1522 (84,5%) completaron el cuestionario; 1014 (66,8%) eran mujeres. De los participantes, 59,1% (intervalo de confianza de 95% [IC 95%] = 56,6-61,5) tuvo un tamizaje positivo para malestar psicológico y 23% (IC 95% = 20,9-25,2) para síntomas depresivos de moderados a graves. Las experiencias con la pandemia de COVID-19, las características sociodemográficas y las características del trabajo se correlacionaron con las variables de resultado del estudio. Los participantes que estaban preocupados por el contagio de la COVID-19 tuvieron un mayor riesgo de malestar psicológico (riesgo relativo [RR] = 1,47; IC 95% = 1,30-1,66) y síntomas depresivos (RR = 1,51; IC 95% = 1,17-1,96). Asimismo, los participantes más jóvenes presentaban un riesgo alto de malestar psicológico (RR = 1,80; IC 95% = 1,24-2,63) y síntomas depresivos (razón de posibilidades [OR] = 4,58; IC 95% = 1,51-13,87). Conclusiones. Las afecciones de salud mental tienen una prevalencia sumamente alta en los trabajadores de salud de Guatemala.

ABSTRACT Objectives. To assess the baseline prevalence of mental health conditions and associated exposures in a cohort of health care workers (HCWs) in Guatemala. Methods. We analyzed baseline information from the 2020 Web-based COVID-19 Health Care Workers Study (HEROES)-Guatemala. Outcomes included mental distress and depressive symptoms. Exposures included COVID-19 experiences, sociodemographic characteristics, and job characteristics. We used crude and adjusted Poisson regression models in our analyses. Results. Of the 1801 HCWs who accepted to participate, 1522 (84.5%) completed the questionnaire; 1014 (66.8%) were women. Among the participants, 59.1% (95% confidence interval [CI] = 56.6, 61.5) screened positive for mental distress and 23% (95% CI = 20.9, 25.2) for moderate to severe depressive symptoms. COVID-19 experiences, sociodemographic characteristics, and job characteristics were associated with the study outcomes. Participants who were worried about COVID-19 infection were at higher risk of mental distress (relative risk [RR] = 1.47; 95% CI = 1.30, 1.66) and depressive symptoms (RR = 1.51; 95% CI = 1.17, 1.96). Similarly, the youngest participants were at elevated risk of mental distress (RR = 1.80; 95% CI = 1.24, 2.63) and depressive symptoms (OR = 4.58; 95% CI = 1.51, 13.87). Conclusions. Mental health conditions are highly prevalent among Guatemalan.

RESUMO Objetivos. Avaliar a prevalência basal de condições de saúde mental e exposições associadas em uma coorte de trabalhadores da saúde (TS) na Guatemala. Métodos. Analisamos as informações da linha de base do estudo on-line sobre trabalhadores da saúde e a COVID-19 (HEROES), realizado em 2020 na Guatemala. Os desfechos incluíram angústia debilitante e sintomas de depressão. As exposições incluíram experiências com a COVID-19, características sociodemográficas e características do trabalho. Usamos em nossas análises modelos de regressão bruta e ajustada de Poisson. Resultados. Dos 1801 TS que concordaram em participar, 1522 (84,5%) preencheram o questionário, sendo que 1014 (66,8%) eram mulheres. Dentre esses participantes, 59,1% (intervalo de confiança [IC] de 95%=56,6; 61,5) apresentaram resultado positivo na triagem de angústia debilitante e 23% (IC 95%=20,9, 25,2) apresentaram resultado positivo para sintomas de depressão moderados a graves. Experiências com COVID-19, e características sociodemográficas e de trabalho apresentaram associação com os resultados do estudo. Os participantes que estavam preocupados com infecção por COVID-19 apresentaram maior risco de angústia debilitante (risco relativo [RR]=1,47; IC95%=1,30; 1,66) e sintomas de depressão (RR=1,51; IC 95% =1,17; 1,96). Da mesma maneira, os participantes mais jovens apresentaram alto risco de apresentarem angústia debilitante (RR=1,80; IC 95%=1,24; 2,63) e sintomas de depressão (OR=4,58; IC 95%=1,51; 13,87). Conclusões. Condições de saúde mental são altamente prevalentes entre os guatemaltecos.

Hypertension in Guatemala's Public Primary Care System: A Needs Assessment Using the Health System Building Blocks Framework.

BACKGROUND: Uncontrolled hypertension represents a substantial and growing burden in Guatemala and other low and middle-income countries. As a part of the formative phase of an implementation research study, we conducted a needs assessment to define short- and long-term needs and opportunities for hypertension services within the public health system. METHODS: We conducted a multi-method, multi-level assessment of needs related to hypertension within Guatemala's public system using the World Health Organization's health system building blocks framework. We conducted semi-structured interviews with stakeholders at national (n = 17), departmental (n = 7), district (n = 25), and community (n = 30) levels and focus groups with patients (3) and frontline auxiliary nurses (3). We visited and captured data about infrastructure, accessibility, human resources, reporting, medications and supplies at 124 health posts and 53 health centers in five departments of Guatemala. We conducted a thematic analysis of transcribed interviews and focus group discussions supported by matrix analysis. We summarized quantitative data observed during visits to health posts and centers. RESULTS: Major challenges for hypertension service delivery included: gaps in infrastructure, insufficient staffing and high turnover, limited training, inconsistent supply of medications, lack of reporting, low prioritization of hypertension, and a low level of funding in the public health system overall. Key opportunities included: prior experience caring for patients with chronic conditions, eagerness from providers to learn, and interest from patients to be involved in managing their health. The 5 departments differ in population served per health facility, accessibility, and staffing. All but 7 health posts had basic infrastructure in place. Enalapril was available in 74% of health posts whereas hydrochlorothiazide was available in only 1 of the 124 health posts. With the exception of one department, over 90% of health posts had a blood pressure monitor. CONCLUSIONS: This multi-level multi-method needs assessment using the building blocks framework highlights contextual factors in Guatemala's public health system that have been important in informing the implementation of a hypertension control trial. Long-term needs that are not addressed within the scope of this study will be important to address to enable sustained implementation and scale-up of the hypertension control approach.

Caregiver rating of early childhood development: Reliability and validity of the ASQ-3 in rural Guatemala.

BACKGROUND: Although performance-based assessment of early childhood development is preferred, there are a number of limitations to this methodology in low resource settings (LRSs). Hence, clinicians and researchers often rely on caregiver report screening tools. The Ages and Stages Questionnaire 3 (ASQ) is one of the most widely used caregiver report measures globally. Adequate psychometric properties have been demonstrated in high income settings, especially when used in older children, high- risk children, or those with severe neurodevelopmental delays. However, its utility is more variable within very young children and for use in LRSs. METHODS: The reliability and validity of the ASQ was determined for children ages 0-5 years living in rural Guatemala. Internal consistency and test-retest reliability were assessed, as well as concurrent and predictive validity. Sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values related to performance-based developmental assessment (Mullen Scales of Early Learning; MSEL) and growth status (i.e. stunting) were also calculated. RESULTS: Internal consistency reliability for the ASQ was adequate, except when results were limited by small sample size. Test-retest reliability ranged from low to moderate (r = 0.08-0.43; p < 0.05-0.01). However, there was significant variability in mean scores over time across ASQ domain scores. In terms of validity, the ASQ did not discriminate adequately between children who performed within or below age-expectations on performance-based developmental testing or those with and without stunting. CONCLUSIONS: The ASQ did not demonstrate adequate psychometric properties in rural Guatemala, consistent with concerns documented in other LRSs. These results indicate that existing caregiver report screening measures of early childhood development should be utilized with caution in LRSs, and alternative methods for assessment or in the development and utilization of caregiver report measures should be considered.

Excess Mortality During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Guatemala.

Objectives. To describe excess mortality during the COVID-19 pandemic in Guatemala during 2020 by week, age, sex, and place of death. Methods. We used mortality data from 2015 to 2020, gathered through the vital registration system of Guatemala. We calculated weekly mortality rates, overall and stratified by age, sex, and place of death. We fitted a generalized additive model to calculate excess deaths, adjusting for seasonality and secular trends and compared excess deaths to the official COVID-19 mortality count. Results. We found an initial decline of 26% in mortality rates during the first weeks of the pandemic in 2020, compared with 2015 to 2019. These declines were sustained through October 2020 for the population younger than 20 years and for deaths in public spaces and returned to normal from July onward in the population aged 20 to 39 years. We found a peak of 73% excess mortality in mid-July, especially in the population aged 40 years or older. We estimated a total of 8036 excess deaths (95% confidence interval = 7935, 8137) in 2020, 46% higher than the official COVID-19 mortality count. Conclusions. The extent of this health crisis is underestimated when COVID-19 confirmed death counts are used. (Am J Public Health. 2021;111(10): 1839-1846. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2021.306452).

Parent Report of Health Related Quality of Life in Young Children in Rural Guatemala: Implementation, Reliability, and Validity of the PedsQL in Stunting and Wasting.

In this study, we review the implementation, reliability, and validity of the Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory (PedsQL), a measure of health-related quality of life, in young children in rural Guatemala. Mothers of 842 children (age range = 1-60 months) completed the PedsQL Generic Core Scales 4.0 serially for 1 year. Low (Pearson's r = 0.28, P < .0001) to moderate (Pearson's r = 0.65, P < .0001) consistency in responding over time was shown. The PedsQL did not discriminate reliably between healthy children and those with stunting or wasting. PedsQL scores were not lower during the time of an acute illness. While we found low to moderate evidence for the reliability of the PedsQL in healthy children, it did not discriminate between healthy children and those with stunting, wasting or other acute illness.

Evaluating a multicomponent program to improve hypertension control in Guatemala: study protocol for an effectiveness-implementation cluster randomized trial.

BACKGROUND: Hypertension is a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD). Despite advances in hypertension prevention and treatment, the proportion of patients who are aware, treated and controlled is low, particularly in low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs). We will evaluate an adapted version of a multilevel and multicomponent hypertension control program in Guatemala, previously proven effective and feasible in Argentina. The program components are: protocol-based hypertension treatment using a standardized algorithm; team-based collaborative care; health provider education; health coaching sessions; home blood pressure monitoring; blood pressure audit; and feedback. METHODS: Using a hybrid type 2 effectiveness-implementation design, we will evaluate clinical and implementation outcomes of the multicomponent program in Guatemala over an 18-month period. Through a cluster randomized trial, we will randomly assign 18 health districts to the intervention arm and 18 to enhanced usual care across five departments, enrolling 44 participants per health district and 1584 participants in total. The clinical outcomes are (1) the difference in the proportion of patients with controlled hypertension (< 130/80 mmHg) between the intervention and control groups at 18 months and (2) the net change in systolic and diastolic blood pressure from baseline to 18 months. The context-enhanced Reach, Efficacy, Adoption, Implementation, Maintenance (RE-AIM)/Practical Robust Implementation and Sustainability Model (PRISM) framework will guide the evaluation of the implementation at the level of the patient, provider, and health system. Using a mixed-methods approach, we will evaluate the following implementation outcomes: acceptability, adoption, feasibility, fidelity, adaptation, reach, sustainability, and cost-effectiveness. DISCUSSION: We will disseminate the study findings, and promote scale up and scale out of the program, if proven effective. This study will generate urgently needed data on effective, adoptable, and sustainable interventions and implementation strategies to improve hypertension control in Guatemala and other LMICs. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT03504124. Registered on 20 April 2018.

Reliability and Validity of an Adapted and Translated Version of the Mullen Scales of Early Learning (AT-MSEL) in Rural Guatemala.

BACKGROUND: A growing literature base supports the use of tests developed in high-income countries to assess children in low resource settings when carefully translated, adapted, and applied. Evaluation of psychometric properties of adapted and translated measures within populations is necessary. The current project sought to evaluate the reliability and validity of an adapted and translated version of the Mullen Scales of Early Learning (AT-MSEL) in rural Guatelama. METHODS: The reliability and validity of the AT-MSEL in rural Guatemala were analyzed for children ages 0-5 years. RESULTS: Interrater reliability coefficients (ICC = 0.99-1.0) and internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha = 0.91-0.93) were excellent for all subscales. General linear models utilizing paired data showed consistency between standard scores (p < 0.0001). Mean raw scores increased with chronological age, as expected. Across age groups, subscales were significantly, positively correlated with one another (p < 0.05 - < 0.001) with one exception, visual reception and expressive language at the 0-10 month age range (p = 0.43). CONCLUSIONS: The AT- MSEL showed strong psychometric properties in a sample of young children in rural Guatemala. Findings demonstrate that the AT-MSEL can be used validly and reliably within this specific population of children. This work supports the concept that tests developed in high-income countries can be used to assess children in low resource settings when carefully translated, adapted and applied.

Receptive language skills among young children in rural Guatemala: The relationship between the Test de Vocabulario en Imagenes Peabody and a translated and adapted version of the Mullen Scales of Early Learning.

BACKGROUND: Children in low- and lower middle income countries (LMICs) often have poorer language skills compared with children from high-income countries. Limited availability of culturally and linguistically appropriate assessment measures in LMICs, especially for young children, can hinder early identification and prevention efforts. Here, we describe receptive language (RL) skills among young children in rural Guatemala and report on the validity of a translated and culturally adapted developmental measure of RL. METHODS: Children (n = 157; m = 53.6 months, range = 42-68 months) enrolled in a prospective cohort study of postnatally acquired Zika virus infection were administered the Test de Vocabulario en Imagenes Peabody (TVIP) and the RL scale from a translated and adapted version of the Mullen Scales of Early Learning (MSEL). Performance on the TVIP was compared with the Latin American normative sample. Correlational analysis examined the relationship between performance on the TVIP and the MSEL-RL. RESULTS: Mean scores were significantly below the normative sample mean on the TVIP, t(126) = -11.04, p < .001; d = 1.00. Performance on the TVIP among children who passed the practice items (n = 127) was significantly positively associated with performance on the MSEL-RL (r = .50, p < .001), but not significantly associated with age or gender. Older age (p < .0001) and female gender (p = .018) were associated with passing the TVIP practice items. CONCLUSIONS: Delays in RL vocabulary were identified among young children in rural Guatemala on the TVIP. The association between scores on the TVIP and the RL scale of the MSEL provides preliminary support for the construct validity of this translated and adapted version of the MSEL.