2023 Australian guideline for assessing and managing cardiovascular disease risk.

INTRODUCTION: The 2023 Australian guideline for assessing and managing cardiovascular disease risk provides updated evidence-based recommendations for the clinical assessment and management of cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk for primary prevention. It includes the new Australian CVD risk calculator (Aus CVD Risk Calculator), based on an equation developed from a large New Zealand cohort study, customised and recalibrated for the Australian population. The new guideline replaces the 2012 guideline that recommended CVD risk assessment using the Framingham risk equation. MAIN RECOMMENDATIONS: The new guideline recommends CVD risk assessment in people without known CVD: all people aged 45-79 years, people with diabetes from 35 years, and First Nations people from 30 years. The new Aus CVD Risk Calculator should be used to estimate and categorise CVD risk into low (< 5% risk over five years), intermediate (5% to < 10% risk over five years) or high risk (≥ 10% over five years). The following reclassification factors may be applied to recategorise calculated risk to improve accuracy of risk prediction, particularly in individuals close to a risk threshold: Indigenous status/ethnicity, estimated glomerular filtration rate, urine albumin to creatinine ratio measurements, severe mental illness, coronary artery calcium score and family history of premature CVD. A variety of communication formats is available to communicate CVD risk to help enable shared decision making. Healthy lifestyle modification, including smoking cessation, nutrition, physical activity and limiting alcohol, is encouraged for all individuals. Blood pressure-lowering and lipid-modifying pharmacotherapies should be prescribed for high risk and considered for intermediate risk individuals, unless contraindicated or clinically inappropriate. Reassessment of CVD risk should be considered within five years for individuals at low risk and within two years for those with intermediate risk. Reassessment of CVD risk is not recommended for individuals at high risk. CHANGES IN ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT AS A RESULT OF THE GUIDELINE: The updated guideline recommends assessment over a broader age range and uses the Aus CVD Risk Calculator, which replaces the previous Framingham-based equation. It incorporates new variables: social disadvantage, diabetes-specific risk markers, diagnosis of atrial fibrillation and use of blood pressure-lowering and lipid-modifying therapies. Reclassification factors are also a new addition. Updated risk categories and thresholds are based on the new Aus CVD Risk Calculator. The proportion of the population in the high risk category (≥ 10% over five years) is likely to be broadly comparable to more than 15% risk from the Framingham-based equation. The full guideline and Aus CVD Risk Calculator can be accessed at www.cvdcheck.org.au.

An electronic decision support-based complex intervention to improve management of cardiovascular risk in primary health care: a cluster randomised trial (INTEGRATE).

OBJECTIVES: To determine whether a multifaceted primary health care intervention better controlled cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors in patients with high risk of CVD than usual care. DESIGN, SETTING: Parallel arm, cluster randomised trial in 71 Australian general practices, 5 December 2016 - 13 September 2019. PARTICIPANTS: General practices that predominantly used an electronic medical record system compatible with the HealthTracker electronic decision support tool, and willing to implement all components of the INTEGRATE intervention. INTERVENTION: Electronic point-of-care decision support for general practices; combination cardiovascular medications (polypills); and a pharmacy-based medication adherence program. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Proportion of patients with high CVD risk not on an optimal preventive medication regimen at baseline who had achieved both blood pressure and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol goals at study end. RESULTS: After a median 15 months' follow-up, primary outcome data were available for 4477 of 7165 patients in the primary outcome cohort (62%). The proportion of patients who achieved both treatment targets was similar in the intervention (423 of 2156; 19.6%) and control groups (466 of 2321; 20.1%; relative risk, 1.06; 95% CI, 0.85-1.32). Further, no statistically significant differences were found for a number of secondary outcomes, including risk factor screening, preventive medication prescribing, and risk factor levels. Use of intervention components was low; it was highest for HealthTracker, used at least once for 347 of 3236 undertreated patients with high CVD risk (10.7%). CONCLUSIONS: Despite evidence for the efficacy of its individual components, the INTEGRATE intervention was not broadly implemented and did not improve CVD risk management in participating Australian general practices. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry, ACTRN12616000233426 (prospective).

A computer-guided quality improvement tool for primary health care: cost-effectiveness analysis based on TORPEDO trial data.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the cost-effectiveness of a computer-guided quality improvement intervention for primary health care management of cardiovascular disease (CVD) in people at high risk. DESIGN: Modelled cost-effectiveness analysis of the HealthTracker intervention and usual care for people with high CVD risk, based on TORPEDO trial data on prescribing patterns, changes in intermediate risk factors (low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, systolic blood pressure), and Framingham risk scores. PARTICIPANTS: Hypothetical population of people with high CVD risk attending primary health care services in a New South Wales primary health network (PHN) of mean size. INTERVENTION: HealthTracker, integrated into health care provider electronic health record systems, provides real time decision support, risk communication, a clinical audit tool, and a web portal for performance feedback. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs): difference in costs of the intervention and usual care divided by number of CVD events averted with HealthTracker. RESULTS: The estimated numbers of major CVD events over five years per 1000 patients at high CVD risk were lower in PHNs using HealthTracker, both for patients with prior CVD events (secondary prevention; 259 v 267 with usual care) and for those without prior events (primary prevention; 168 v 176). Medication costs were higher and hospitalisation costs lower with HealthTracker than with usual care for both primary and secondary prevention. The estimated ICER for one averted CVD event was $7406 for primary prevention and $17 988 for secondary prevention. CONCLUSION: Modelled cost-effectiveness analyses provide information that can assist decisions about investing in health care quality improvement interventions. We estimate that HealthTracker could prevent major CVD events for less than $20 000 per event averted. TRIAL REGISTRATION (TORPEDO): Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry, ACTRN 12611000478910.

Cardiovascular disease risk assessment for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults aged under 35 years: a consensus statement.

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a leading cause of preventable morbidity and mortality in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. This statement from the Australian Chronic Disease Prevention Alliance, the Royal Australian College of General Practitioners, the National Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Organisation and the Editorial Committee for Remote Primary Health Care Manuals communicates the latest consensus advice of guideline developers, aligning recommendations on the age to commence Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander CVD risk assessment across three guidelines. MAIN RECOMMENDATIONS: In Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples without existing CVD: CVD risk factor screening should commence from the age of 18 years at the latest, including for blood glucose level or glycated haemoglobin, estimated glomerular filtration rate, serum lipids, urine albumin to creatinine ratio, and other risk factors such as blood pressure, history of familial hypercholesterolaemia, and smoking status. Individuals aged 18-29 years with the following clinical conditions are automatically conferred high CVD risk: ▶type 2 diabetes and microalbuminuria; ▶moderate to severe chronic kidney disease; ▶systolic blood pressure ≥ 180 mmHg or diastolic blood pressure ≥ 110 mmHg; ▶familial hypercholesterolaemia; or ▶serum total cholesterol > 7.5 mmol/L. Assessment using the National Vascular Disease Prevention Alliance absolute CVD risk algorithm should commence from the age of 30 years at the latest - consider upward adjustment of calculated CVD risk score, accounting for local guideline use, risk factor and CVD epidemiology, and clinical discretion. Assessment should occur as part of an annual health check or opportunistically. Subsequent review should be conducted according to level of risk. CHANGES IN MANAGEMENT AS A RESULT OF THIS STATEMENT: From age 18 years (at the latest), Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults should undergo CVD risk factor screening, and from age 30 years (at the latest), they should undergo absolute CVD risk assessment using the NVDPA risk algorithm.

HealthNavigator: a mobile application for chronic disease screening and linkage to services at an urban Primary Health Network.

Mobile applications (apps) are promising tools to support chronic disease screening and linkage to health services. They have the potential to increase healthcare access for vulnerable populations. The HealthNavigator app was developed to provide chronic disease risk assessments, linkage to local general practitioners (GPs) and lifestyle programs, and a personalised health report for discussion with a GP. Assessments were either self-administered or facilitated by community health workers through a Primary Health Network (PHN) initiative targeting ethnically diverse communities. In total, 1492 assessments (80.4% self-administered, 19.6% facilitated) were conducted over a 12-month period in Queensland, Australia. Of these, 26% of people screened came from postcodes representing the lowest quartile of socioeconomic disadvantage. When compared against self-administered assessments, subjects screened by the facilitated program were more likely to be born outside Australia (80.5 v. 33.2%, P<0.001), and to fall within a high risk category based on cardiovascular risk scores (19.8 v. 13.7%, P<0.01) and type 2 diabetes mellitus risk scores (58.0 v. 40.1%, P<0.001). Mobile apps embedded into PHN programs may be a useful adjunct for the implementation of community screening programs. Further research is needed to determine their effect on health service access and health outcomes.

Reducing cardiovascular disease risk in diabetes: a randomised controlled trial of a quality improvement initiative.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the management of cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk in Australian patients with diabetes; to compare the effectiveness of a quality improvement initiative for people with and without diabetes. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Subgroup analyses of patients with and without diabetes participating in a cluster randomised trial. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Indigenous people (≥ 35 years old) and non-Indigenous people (≥ 45 years old) who had attended one of 60 Australian primary health care services at least three times during the preceding 24 months and at least once during the past 6 months. INTERVENTION: Quality improvement initiative comprising point-of-care electronic decision support with audit and feedback tools. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Adherence to CVD risk screening and prescribing guidelines. RESULTS: Baseline rates of guideline-recommended screening were higher for 8829 patients with diabetes than for 44 335 without diabetes (62.0% v 39.5%; P < 0.001). Baseline rates of guideline-recommended prescribing were greater for patients with diabetes than for other patients at high risk of CVD (55.5% v 39.6%; P < 0.001). The proportions of patients with diabetes not attaining recommended treatment targets for blood pressure, low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol or HbA1c levels who were not prescribed the corresponding therapy at baseline were 28%, 44% and 24% respectively. The intervention was associated with improved screening rates, but the effect was smaller for patients with diabetes than for those without diabetes (rate ratio [RR], 1.14 v 1.28; P = 0.01). It was associated with improved guideline-recommended prescribing only for undertreated individuals at high risk; the effect size was similar for those with and without diabetes (RR, 1.63 v 1.53; P = 0.28). CONCLUSIONS: Adherence to CVD risk management guidelines was better for people with diabetes, but there is room for improvement. The intervention was modestly effective in people with diabetes, but further strategies are needed to close evidence-practice gaps.Australian and New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry number: ACTRN12611000478910.

Facilitators and barriers to implementation of a pragmatic clinical trial in Aboriginal health services.

OBJECTIVE: To identify facilitators and barriers to clinical trial implementation in Aboriginal health services. DESIGN: Indepth interview study with thematic analysis. SETTING: Six Aboriginal community-controlled health services and one government-run service involved in the Kanyini Guidelines Adherence with the Polypill (KGAP) study, a pragmatic randomised controlled trial that aimed to improve adherence to indicated drug treatments for people at high risk of cardiovascular disease. PARTICIPANTS: 32 health care providers and 21 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander patients. RESULTS: A fundamental enabler was that participants considered the research to be governed and endorsed by the local health service. That the research was perceived to address a health priority for communities was also highly motivating for both providers and patients. Enlisting the support of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander staff champions who were visible to the community as the main source of information about the trial was particularly important. The major implementation barrier for staff was balancing their service delivery roles with adherence to often highly demanding trial-related procedures. This was partially alleviated by the research team's provision of onsite support and attempts to make trial processes more streamlined. Although more intensive support was highly desired, there were usually insufficient resources to provide this. CONCLUSION: Despite strong community and health service support, major investments in time and resources are needed to ensure successful implementation and minimal disruption to already overstretched, routine services. Trial budgets will necessarily be inflated as a result. Funding agencies need to consider these additional resource demands when supporting trials of a similar nature.

An economic case for a cardiovascular polypill? A cost analysis of the Kanyini GAP trial.

OBJECTIVE: To measure the costs of a polypill strategy and compare them with those of usual care in people with established cardiovascular disease (CVD) or at similarly high cardiovascular risk. DESIGN: A within-trial cost analysis of polypill-based care versus usual care with separate medications, using data from the Kanyini Guidelines Adherence with the Polypill (GAP) trial and linked health service and medication administrative claims data. PARTICIPANTS: Kanyini GAP participants who consented to Australian Medicare record access. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Mean health service and pharmaceutical expenditure per patient per year, estimated with generalised linear models. Costs during the trial (randomisation January 2010 - May 2012, median follow-up 19 months, maximum follow-up 36 months) were inflated to 2012 costs. RESULTS: Our analysis showed a statistically significantly lower mean pharmaceutical expenditure of $989 (95% CI, $648-$1331) per patient per year in the polypill arm compared with usual care (P < 0.001; adjusted, excluding polypill cost). No significant difference was shown in health service expenditure. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides evidence of significant cost savings to the taxpayer and Australian Government through the introduction of a CVD polypill strategy. The savings will be less now than during the trial due to subsequent reductions in the costs of usual care. Nonetheless, given the prevalence of CVD in Australia, the introduction of this polypill could increase considerably the efficiency of health care expenditure in Australia. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry ACTRN126080005833347.

How fair is Medicare? The income-related distribution of Medicare benefits with special focus on chronic care items.

OBJECTIVE: To use patient-level data, clinical information and linked Medicare records to assess the distribution of benefits (rebates) across income groups, including benefits relating to chronic conditions such as the Chronic Disease Dental Scheme (CDDS). DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Nationally representative, cluster-stratified survey (the Australian Hypertension and Absolute Risk Study) involving 322 general practitioners who each collected clinical data on 15-20 patients aged≥55,2012s who presented between 1 April 2008 and 30 June 2008 and who consented to have their information linked with Medicare administrative records over 12 months. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Distribution of total out-of-hospital Medicare expenditure quantified using concentration indices and determinants of use calculated by odds ratios. RESULTS: There were 2862 patients in the study. After controlling for need, the concentration index for overall funding was slightly progressive (pro-poor) at -0.008 (95% CI, -0.009 to -0.008). Medicare expenditure on chronic care-related services consistently contributed to progressivity of the overall scheme, particularly services under the CDDS with a need-adjusted concentration index of -0.205 (95% CI, -0.208 to -0.201). Uptake of chronic care items varied by locality and comorbid conditions (there was greater uptake by patients with one or more comorbid conditions). CONCLUSIONS: Chronic care items, particularly dental items, have primarily been used by individuals from lower income households. Uptake of chronic care items contributes to the overall progressivity of Medicare.

Cardiovascular risk perception and evidence--practice gaps in Australian general practice (the AusHEART study).

OBJECTIVE: To examine the perception and management of cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk in Australian primary care. DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: The Australian Hypertension and Absolute Risk Study (AusHEART) was a nationally representative, cluster-stratified, cross-sectional survey of 322 general practitioners. Each GP was asked to collect data on CVD risk factors and their management in 15-20 consecutive patients aged >or= 55 years who presented between April and June 2008, and to estimate each patient's absolute risk of a cardiovascular event in the next 5 years. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Estimated 5-year risk of a cardiovascular event, proportion of patients receiving appropriate treatment. RESULTS: Among 5293 patients, 29% (1548) had established CVD. A further 22% (1145), when categorised according to the 2009 National Vascular Disease Prevention Alliance guideline, to 42% (2211), when categorised according to National Heart Foundation (NHF) 2004 guideline, had a high (>or= 15%) 5-year risk of a cardiovascular event. Of the 1548 patients with established CVD, 50% were prescribed a combination of a blood pressure (BP)-lowering medication, a statin and an antiplatelet agent, and 9% were prescribed a BP-lowering medication and a statin but not an antiplatelet agent. Among high-risk patients without established CVD, categorised using NHF 2004 adjustments, 34% were prescribed a combination of a BP-lowering medication and a statin. GPs estimated 60% of patients with established CVD as having a risk of less than 15%. The GPs' estimates of risk among patients without established CVD agreed with the centrally calculated estimate (according to the NHF 2004 guideline) in 48% of instances (Kappa = 0.21). CONCLUSIONS: These data confirm substantial undertreatment of patients who are at high risk of a cardiovascular event. We recommend that GPs assess absolute risk for older patients and ensure that high-risk patients receive evidence-based pharmacotherapy.

An electronic clinical decision support tool to assist primary care providers in cardiovascular disease risk management: development and mixed methods evaluation.

BACKGROUND: Challenges remain in translating the well-established evidence for management of cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk into clinical practice. Although electronic clinical decision support (CDS) systems are known to improve practitioner performance, their development in Australian primary health care settings is limited. OBJECTIVES: Study aims were to (1) develop a valid CDS tool that assists Australian general practitioners (GPs) in global CVD risk management, and (2) preliminarily evaluate its acceptability to GPs as a point-of-care resource for both general and underserved populations. METHODS: CVD risk estimation (based on Framingham algorithms) and risk-based management advice (using recommendations from six Australian guidelines) were programmed into a software package. Tool validation: Data from 137 patients attending a physician's clinic were analyzed to compare the tool's risk scores with those obtained from an independently programmed algorithm in a separate statistics package. The tool's management advice was compared with a physician's recommendations based on a manual review of the guidelines. Field test: The tool was then tested with 21 GPs from eight general practices and three Aboriginal Medical Services. Customized CDS-based recommendations were generated for 200 routinely attending patients (33% Aboriginal) using information extracted from the health record by a research assistant. GPs reviewed these recommendations during each consultation. Changes in CVD risk factor measurement and management were recorded. In-depth interviews with GPs were conducted. RESULTS: Validation testing: the tool's risk assessment algorithm correlated very highly with the independently programmed version in the separate statistics package (intraclass correlation coefficient 0.999). For management advice, there were only two cases of disagreement between the tool and the physician. Field test: GPs found 77% (153/200) of patient outputs easy to understand and agreed with screening and prescribing recommendations in 72% and 64% of outputs, respectively; 26% of patients had their CVD risk factor history updated; 73% had at least one CVD risk factor measured or tests ordered. For people assessed at high CVD risk (n = 82), 10% and 9%, respectively, had lipid-lowering and BP-lowering medications commenced or dose adjustments made, while 7% newly commenced anti-platelet medications. Three key qualitative findings emerged: (1) GPs found the tool enabled a systematic approach to care; (2) the tool greatly influenced CVD risk communication; (3) successful implementation into routine care would require integration with practice software, minimal data entry, regular revision with updated guidelines, and a self-auditing feature. There were no substantive differences in study findings for Aboriginal Medical Services GPs, and the tool was generally considered appropriate for use with Aboriginal patients. CONCLUSION: A fully-integrated, self-populating, and potentially Internet-based CDS tool could contribute to improved global CVD risk management in Australian primary health care. The findings from this study will inform a large-scale trial intervention.

Cardiovascular disease risk management for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples in primary health care settings: findings from the Kanyini Audit.

OBJECTIVE: To describe cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk management in Indigenous primary health care. DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Review of 1165 randomly selected case records of Indigenous Australian adults, aged >/= 18 years, regularly attending eight health services in diverse settings in New South Wales, Queensland and Central Australia, October 2007 - May 2008. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Adherence to CVD risk screening and management guidelines, especially with respect to overall or absolute CVD risk. RESULTS: More than half the people in the sample (53%) were not adequately screened for CVD risk according to national recommendations. Underscreening was significantly associated with younger age, less frequent attendance, and lower uptake of the Medicare Health Assessment. Of the sample, 9% had established CVD, and 29% of those aged >/= 30 years were classified as high risk according to the 2004 National Heart Foundation of Australia (NHFA) adjusted Framingham equation. Of those with CVD, 40% (95% CI, 30%-50%) were not prescribed a combination of blood pressure (BP) medicines, statins and antiplatelet agents, and 56% (95% CI, 49%-62%) of high-risk individuals without CVD were not prescribed BP medicines and statins. For high-risk individuals not prescribed BP medicines or statins, 74% (95% CI, 64%-84%) and 30% (95% CI, 23%-39%) respectively, did not meet 2004 NHFA criteria for prescribing of these medications, and of those already prescribed BP medicines or statins, 41% (95% CI, 36%-47%) and 59% (95% CI, 52%-66%) did not meet respective guideline targets. CONCLUSIONS: These management gaps are similar to those found in non-Indigenous health care settings, suggesting deficiencies across the health system. Prescribing guidelines which exclude many high-risk individuals contribute to suboptimal management. Guideline reform and improved health service capacity could substantially improve Indigenous vascular health.

Gaps in cardiovascular disease risk management in Australian general practice.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the management of cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk in Australian general practice. DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: National cross-sectional survey of 99 Australian general practitioners participating in the Bettering the Evaluation and Care of Health (BEACH) program. Data on 2618 consecutive adult patients presenting to the participating GPs over a 5-week period from September to October 2006 were analysed. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Proportions of patients screened, treated and reaching targets according to (1) current Australian CVD risk guidelines and (2) overall or absolute CVD risk. RESULTS: Blood pressure (BP) had not been recorded for 13% of the sample. Of 1400 patients not prescribed antihypertensive medication, treatment was indicated for 8%. Of 821 patients already prescribed antihypertensive medication, 59% were achieving target BPs. Data on low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels were not available for 53% of the 2175 patients who should have had lipid screening according to the guidelines. Of 624 patients not prescribed a statin, treatment was indicated for 41%. Of 368 already prescribed a statin, 62% were achieving target LDL cholesterol levels. Sufficient data for calculation of absolute risk had been recorded for 74% of the 1736 patients for whom such calculation was recommended by the guidelines. The remaining 26% either had at least one required variable unmeasured (20%) or missing from the data collection (6%). For those at high absolute CVD risk (without established disease) and those with established CVD, 23% and 53%, respectively, had been prescribed both antihypertensive medication and a statin. CONCLUSIONS: Gaps between guideline recommendations and practice in recording and managing BP were relatively low compared with gaps for lipids. When stratified by absolute risk, patients at high risk of a cardiovascular event were found to be substantially undertreated.