Marine polysaccharides, proteins, lipids, and silica for drug delivery systems: A review.

Marine environments represent an incredible source of biopolymers with potential biomedical applications. Recently, drug delivery studies have received great attention for the increasing need to improve site specificity, therapeutic value, and bioavailability, reducing off-target effects. Marine polymers, such as alginate, carrageenan, collagen, chitosan, and silica, have reported unique biochemical features, allowing an efficient binding with drugs, and a controlled release to the target tissue, also obtainable through "green processes". In the present review, we i) analysed the last ten years of scientific peer-reviewed literature; ii) divided the articles based on the achieved experimental phases, tagged as chemistry, drug release, and drug delivery, and iii) compared the best performances among marine polymers extracted from micro- and macro-organisms. Many reviews describe drug carriers from marine organisms, focusing on a single biopolymer or a chemical class. Our study is a groundbreaking literature collection, representing the first thorough investigation of all marine biopolymers described. Most articles report experimental results on the chemical characterisation of marine biopolymers and their in vitro behaviour as drug carriers, although development processes and commercial applications are still in the early stages. Hence, the next efforts should be focused on the sustainable production of marine polymers and final product development.

Diatom Genus Hyalosira (Rhabdonematales emend.) and Resolution of its Polyphyly in Grammatophoraceae and Rhabdonemataceae with a New Genus, Placosira, and Five New Hyalosira Species.

Hyalosira gene sequences are divided into two clades within different families. We examined authentic material of Hyalosira (isotype material of H. obtusangula, synonymous with H. delicatula) and voucher specimens of published sequences, and pooled our observations of Hyalosira-like taxa from benthic and epizoic habitats in several parts of the globe. The two molecular clades corresponded to two morphological groups, with Hyalosira obtusangula associated with Grammatophoraceae. We emend the description and provide lectotypification for Hyalosira and propose Placosira to encompass the taxa in the other clade, associated with Rhabdonemataceae. We propose that Hyalosira has uniseriate to triseriate striae, sometimes different on valve face and mantle. Copulae in most species had shallow septa, though in one they were moderately deep. All species had girdle bands bearing two rows of areolae separated by a midrib. We name five new species of Hyalosira. Morphologies of taxa in the Placosira clade were superficially similar to Hyalosira but differed in having areolae with ricae, a single row of areolae on the girdle bands, and tubular rimoportulae on the valve-face-mantle junction. Hyalosira hustedtiana Patrick should revert to its original position in Striatella until the appropriate genus can be determined. We emend Rhabdonematales to encompass Rhabdonemataceae, Grammatophoraceae and Tabellariaceae.

Adsorption of indium by waste biomass of brown alga Ascophyllum nodosum.

The biosorption capacities of dried meal and a waste product from the processing for biostimulant extract of Ascophyllum nodosum were evaluated as candidates for low-cost, effective biomaterials for the recovery of indium(III). The use of indium has significantly grown in the last decade, because of its utilization in hi-tech. Two formats were evaluated as biosorbents: waste-biomass, a residue derived from the alkaline extraction of a commercial, biostimulant product, and natural-biomass which was harvested, dried and milled as a commercial, "kelp meal" product. Two systems have been evaluated: ideal system with indium only, and double metal-system with indium and iron, where two different levels of iron were investigated. For both systems, the indium biosorption by the brown algal biomass was found to be pH-dependent, with an optimum at pH3. In the ideal system, indium adsorption was higher (maximum adsorptions of 48 mg/g for the processed, waste biomass and 63 mg/g for the natural biomass), than in the double metal-system where the maximum adsorption was with iron at 0.07 g/L. Good values of indium adsorption were demonstrated in both the ideal and double systems: there was competition between the iron and indium ions for the binding sites available in the A. nodosum-derived materials. Data suggested that the processed, waste biomass of the algae, could be a good biosorbent for its indium absorption properties. This had the double advantages of both recovery of indium (high economic importance), and also definition of a virtuous circular economic innovative strategy, whereby a waste becomes a valuable resource.

Assessing marine environmental status through microphytobenthos assemblages colonizing the Autonomous Reef Monitoring Structures (ARMS) and their potential in coastal marine restoration.

Microphytobenthos is potentially highly sensitive to environmental alterations, but has been rarely utilized in monitoring studies. Here we investigated the use of microphytobenthos colonizing Autonomous Reef Monitoring Structures (ARMS) to assess the marine environmental quality. We analysed microphytobenthic assemblages in terms of abundance, biomass and species composition on ARMS deployed in northern Adriatic Sea along a gradient of increasing impacts. We show that microphytobenthic variables changed significantly across sites, with lowest abundance and biodiversity in the highly impacted site. Moreover, the specific analysis of Diatoms revealed that genera like Entomoneis and Cylindrotheca could be used as indicators of nutrient enriched and stressed conditions. We provide evidence that the analysis of microphytobenthos colonizing artificial substrates could be used as a tool for detecting altered environmental characteristics. We also show that the ARMS, recreating hot spots of microphytobenthic biodiversity, and protect them from grazing, could be potentially utilized to restore degraded hard substrates. Our result indicates that microphytobenthos can be easily incorporated in future monitoring and restoration programmes to assess and improve marine environmental health.

Microphytobenthic community composition and primary production at gas and thermal vents in the Aeolian Islands (Tyrrhenian Sea, Italy).

Sediment samplings were performed to investigate the microphytobenthic community and photosynthetic activity adaptations to gas emissions and higher temperature in the Aeolian Islands during a three-year period (2012-2014). Higher microphytobenthic densities were recorded at the vent stations and values were even more pronounced in relation with high temperature. The gross primary production estimates strongly depended on microphytobenthic abundance values reaching up to 45.79 ± 6.14 mgC m(-2) h(-1). High abundances were coupled with low community richness and diversity. Motile diatom living forms were predominant at all stations and the greatest differences among vent and reference stations were detected on the account of the tychopelagic forms. Morphological deformities and heavily silicified diatom frustules were also observed. A significant influence of the gas emission and high temperature on the phototrophic community was highlighted suggesting the Aeolian Islands as a good natural laboratory for studies on high CO2 and global warming effects.

Phylogenetic Relationships and Biogeography of the Diatom Genus Mastogloia (Bacillariophyceae): Revision of the Section Ellipticae Including the Description of New Taxa.

Benthic diatoms represent an important component of aquatic ecosystems, both for their contribution to primary production and their role in the marine food web. Mastogloia is a large, mostly marine diatom genus occurring in microphytobenthic communities of temperate to tropical coastal regions. In this study, the phylogenetic relationships, based on cladistic methodologies using morphological features, among all taxa belonging to the genus Mastogloia section Ellipticae (i.e., 33 taxa) were investigated using the parsimony method. The character states that describe variations of central area, raphe, areola vela and partectal position have a tendency to be very homologous and useful in recovering phylogenies. The typical character states of this section, such as rounded apices represents an ancestral homology. The phylogenetic hypothesis supports the probable monophyletic origin of the section Ellipticae (synapomorphy). Moreover, we completed the taxonomical review of the section Ellipticae, with the description of seven species, M. cocconeiformis, M. cribrosa, M. fimbriata, M. ovata, M. pseudolatecostata, and of two species new to science, M. rosalbae and M. aegyptiaca. Finally, this study provides historical and new information on the geographical distribution of Mastogloia species.

Herbivory in the soft coral Sinularia flexibilis (Alcyoniidae).

Our work provides strong support for the hypothesis that Sinularia flexibilis ingests diatoms such as Thalassiosira pseudonana. We assessed algal ingestion by S. flexibilis through estimates of algal removal, histological analyses, scanning electron microscopy observations, and gene expression determination (18S and silicon transporter 1) by real time PCR. Cell counts are strongly suggestive of algal removal by the coral; light and scanning microscopy provide qualitative evidence for the ingestion of T. pseudonana by S. flexibilis, while molecular markers did not prove to be sufficiently selective/specific to give clear results. We thus propose that previous instances of inability of corals to ingest algae are reconsidered using different technical approach, before concluding that coral herbivory is not a general feature.

Removal of vanadium(III) and molybdenum(V) from wastewater using Posidonia oceanica (Tracheophyta) biomass.

The use of dried and re-hydrated biomass of the seagrass Posidonia oceanica was investigated as an alternative and -low-cost biomaterial for removal of vanadium(III) and molybdenum(V) from wastewaters. Initial characterisation of this biomaterial identified carboxylic groups on the cuticle as potentially responsible for cation sorption, and confirmed the toxic-metal bioaccumulation. The combined effects on biosorption performance of equilibrium pH and metal concentrations were investigated in an ideal single-metal system and in more real-life multicomponent systems. There were either with one metal (vanadium or molybdenum) and sodium nitrate, as representative of high ionic strength systems, or with the two metals (vanadium and molybdenum). For the single-metal solutions, the optimum was at pH 3, where a significant proportion of vanadium was removed (ca. 70%) while there was ca. 40% adsorption of molybdenum. The data obtained from the more real-life multicomponent systems showed that biosorption of one metal was improved both by the presence of the other metal and by high ionic strength, suggesting a synergistic effect on biosorption rather than competition. There data ware used for the development of a simple multi-metal equilibrium model based on the non-competitive Langmuir approach, which was successfully fitted to experimental data and represents a useful support tool for the prediction of biosorption performance in such real-life systems. Overall, the results suggest that biomass of P. oceanica can be used as an efficient biosorbent for removal of vanadium(III) and molybdenum(V) from aqueous solutions. This process thus offers an eco-compatible solution for the reuse of the waste material of leaves that accumulate on the beach due to both human activities and to storms at sea.

Marine macrophytes as effective lead biosorbents.

Several species of seagrass and marine macrophytes were investigated for their biosorption performance in the removal of lead from aqueous solution. The effect of pH on the equilibrium of the seagrass Cymodocea nodosa as a biosorbent also was studied. It was found that increasing pH increased lead biosorption, with a maximum uptake of approximately 140 mg/g in the range pH 3.3 to 5. Equilibrium data at different pH levels were successfully fitted to competitive equilibrium models. In addition, the seaweeds belonging to different phyla (i.e., Chlorophyta, Heterokontophyta, and Rhodophyta) were studied for the effect of their structure on equilibrium at a constant pH 5. The brown algae (Heterokontophyta) showed the highest potential for lead sorption, with a maximum uptake of 220 mg/g for C. compressa and 140 mg/g for S. lomentaria. The green algae (Chlorophyta) showed lead uptake in the range 40 to 90 mg/g, and the red algae (Rhodophyta) was least effective, with uptake in the range 10 to 40 mg/g.

MORPHOLOGICAL STUDIES OF SOME MARINE MASTOGLOIA (BACILLARIOPHYCEAE) BELONGING TO SECTION SULCATAE, INCLUDING THE DESCRIPTION OF NEW SPECIES.

Epiphytic diatoms on seagrass and seaweed were collected from tropical (e.g., Siladen Island, Celebes Sea, Indonesia and Phú Bài, China Sea, Vietnam), subtropical (e.g., Sharm el-Sheikh, Red Sea, Egypt), and temperate regions (e.g., Patmos Island, Greece) in 2000, 2005, and 2006. Eight species of Mastogloia, belonging to the section Sulcatae, are described mainly through scanning electron microscopy, including two new species to science, M. oculoides and M. sergiana. These species show a differently shaped median depression on the external valve face between the raphe-sternum and the valve margin. Moreover, they lack a developed conopeum or pseudoconopeum, which covers the median depression in other species of the section Sulcatae. This study gives new insights on the ultrastructure of the Mastogloia's valves and provides an update of their current geographical distribution.

Ostreopsis cf. ovata bloom in the northern Adriatic Sea during summer 2009: ecology, molecular characterization and toxin profile.

Intense blooms of the benthic dinoflagellate Ostreopsis cf. ovata have occurred in the northern Adriatic Sea since 2006. These blooms are associated with noxious effects on human health and with the mortality of benthic organisms because of the production of palytoxin-like compounds. The O. cf. ovata bloom and its relationships with nutrient concentrations at two stations on the Conero Riviera (northern Adriatic Sea) were investigated in the summer of 2009. O. cf. ovata developed from August to November, with the highest abundances in September (1.3×10(6) cells g(-1) fw corresponding to 63.8×10(3) cells cm(-2)). The presence of the single O. cf. ovata genotype was confirmed by a PCR assay. Bloom developed when the seawater temperature was decreasing. Nutrient concentrations did not seem to affect bloom dynamics. Toxin analysis performed by high resolution liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry revealed a high total toxin content (up to 75 pg cell(-1)), including putative palytoxin and all the ovatoxins known so far.