Reversal or Repletion Treatment Strategies and Outcomes of Patients With Major Bleeding Events Managed in the Emergency Department: Large Real-Life Investigation in the Northwestern Healthcare District of Tuscany.

OBJECTIVE: To verify the incidence of bleeding events in patients on ongoing anticoagulant treatment in the real world and compare the results of different reversal or repletion strategies currently available for pharmacological treatment. METHODS: Patients managed in the emergency department (ED) with major bleeding events, on ongoing anticoagulation were stratified according to bleeding site and reversal or repletion therapy with andexanet alfa (ADX), idarucizumab (IDA), prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC), and vitamin K (Vit-K). ENDPOINT: Death at 30 days was compared in the subgroups with cerebral hemorrhage (CH) and gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding. RESULTS: Of the 809,397 visits in the years 2022-2023 at 6 EDs in the northwestern health district of Tuscany, 5372 patients with bleeding events were considered; 3740 were excluded due to minor bleeding or propensity score matching. Of the remaining 1632 patients with major bleeding, 548 on ongoing anticoagulation were enrolled; 334 received reversal or repletion agents. Patients with CH (n = 176) and GI bleeding (n = 108) represented the primary analysis cohorts in the study's strategic treatment assessment. Overall, 30-day survival of patients on ongoing aFXa treatment receiving on-label ADX versus off-label PCC showed a relative increase of 71%, while 30-day survival of patients on ongoing aFII receiving on-label IDA versus off-label PCC showed a relative increase of 30%; no substantial difference was found when comparing on-label PCC combined with Vit-K versus off-label Vit-K alone. Indeed, patients undergoing on-label ADX or IDA showed a statistically significant difference over off-label PCC (ADX vs. PCC: n = 15, events = 4, mean ± SD 82.50 ± 18.9, vs. 49, 13, 98.82 ± 27, respectively; analysis of variance [ANOVA] variance 8627; P < 0.001; posthoc test diff 32, 95% confidence interval: 28-35; P < 001; IDA vs. PCC: 20, 5, 32.29 ± 15.0 vs. 2, 1, 28.00 ± 0.0, respectively; ANOVA 1484; P < 0.001; posthoc test -29, -29 -29, respectively; P = n.d.). On-label PCC combined with Vit-K showed overall a slight statistically significant difference versus off-label Vit-K alone (52, 16, 100.58 ± 22.6 vs. 53, 11, 154.62 ± 29.8, respectively; ANOVA 310; P < 0.02; posthoc test 4, 0.7-7.2, respectively; P < 0.02). Data were confirmed in the group of patients with CH (ADX vs. PCC: n = 13, events = 3, mean ± SD 91.55 ± 18.6 vs. 78, 21, 108.91 ± 20.9, respectively; ANOVA variance 10,091, F = 261; P < 0.001; posthoc difference test 36, 95% confidence interval: 30-41; P < 0.001; IDA vs. PCC: 10, 2, 4.50 ± 2.5 vs. 78, 21, 108.91 ± 20.9, respectively; ANOVA 16,876,303, respectively; P < 0.001; posthoc test 41, 34-47, respectively; P < 0.001). On-label PCC combined with Vit-K showed an overall slight statistically significant difference compared with off-label Vit-K alone (P < 0.01 and P < 0.001 in the subgroups of CH and GI bleeding). CONCLUSIONS: Patients undergoing specific reversal therapy with on-label ADX or IDA, when treated with aFXa or aFII anticoagulants, respectively, showed statistically elevated differences in 30-day death compared with off-label repletion therapy with PCC. Overall, 30-day survival of patients on ongoing aFXa or aFII receiving on-label reversal therapy with ADX or IDA compared with off-label PCC repletion agents showed an increase of 71% and 30%, respectively.

Brain-Periphery Interactions in Huntington's Disease: Mediators and Lifestyle Interventions.

Prominent pathological features of Huntington's disease (HD) are aggregations of mutated Huntingtin protein (mHtt) in the brain and neurodegeneration, which causes characteristic motor (such as chorea and dystonia) and non-motor symptoms. However, the numerous systemic and peripheral deficits in HD have gained increasing attention recently, since those factors likely modulate disease progression, including brain pathology. While whole-body metabolic abnormalities and organ-specific pathologies in HD have been relatively well described, the potential mediators of compromised inter-organ communication in HD have been insufficiently characterized. Therefore, we applied an exploratory literature search to identify such mediators. Unsurprisingly, dysregulation of inflammatory factors, circulating mHtt, and many other messenger molecules (hormones, lipids, RNAs) were found that suggest impaired inter-organ communication, including of the gut-brain and muscle-brain axis. Based on these findings, we aimed to assess the risks and potentials of lifestyle interventions that are thought to improve communication across these axes: dietary strategies and exercise. We conclude that appropriate lifestyle interventions have great potential to reduce symptoms and potentially modify disease progression (possibly via improving inter-organ signaling) in HD. However, impaired systemic metabolism and peripheral symptoms warrant particular care in the design of dietary and exercise programs for people with HD.

Abnormal expression of sphingolipid-metabolizing enzymes in the heart of spontaneously hypertensive rat models.

Sphingolipids exert important roles within the cardiovascular system and related diseases. Perturbed sphingolipid metabolism was previously reported in cerebral and renal tissues of spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). Specific defects related to the synthesis of sphingolipids and to the metabolism of Sphingosine-1-Phospahte (S1P) were exclusively identified in the stroke-prone (SHRSP) with the respect to the stroke-resistant (SHRSR) strain. In this study, we explored any existing perturbation in either protein or gene expression of enzymes involved in the sphingolipid pathways in cardiac tissue from both SHRSP and SHRSR strains, compared to the normotensive Wistar Kyoto (WKY) strain. The two hypertensive rat models showed an overall perturbation of the expression of different enzymes involved in the sphingolipid metabolism in the heart. In particular, whereas the expression of the S1P-metabolizing-enzyme, SPHK2, was significantly reduced in both SHR strains, SGPL1 protein levels were decreased only in SHRSP. The protein levels of S1P receptors 1-3 were reduced only in the cardiac tissue of SHRSP, whereas S1PR2 levels were reduced in both SHR strains. The de novo synthesis of sphingolipids was aberrant in the two hypertensive strains. A significant reduction of mRNA expression of the Sgms1 and Smpd3 enzymes, implicated in the metabolism of sphingomyelin, was found in both hypertensive strains. Interestingly, Smpd2, devoted to sphingomyelin degradation, was reduced only in the heart of SHRSP. In conclusion, alterations in the expression of sphingolipid-metabolizing enzymes may be involved in the susceptibility to cardiac damage of hypertensive rat strains. Specific differences detected in the SHRSP, however, deserve further elucidation.

Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia (AIHA) Secondary to Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Infection in a 2-Month-Old Infant: A Case Report.

Autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA) is a rare hematologic disorder in the pediatric population and most cases are associated with microbiological infection. The pathological process is not completely clear, but some evidence suggests immunological dysregulation triggered by bacterial or viral infections. Based on the thermal range of the pathogenic antibody, AIHA can be divided into warm (WAIHA) and cold (CAIHA) groups. Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is one of the most common viruses reported as a trigger of AIHA. We present an unusual case of AIHA in a 2-month-old infant positive for both the direct antiglobulin test (C3 complement fraction) and CMV-Polymerase chain reaction in blood samples. In this case, the dating of the infection was uncertain, making it impossible to discriminate between congenital flare-up or a primary acute episode, emphasizing the importance of CMV prenatal testing as a screening measure. We adopted multiple therapeutic strategies including steroids (methylprednisolone and prednisone), Intravenous Immunoglobulin, antivirals (ganciclovir and valganciclovir), and red blood cell transfusion.

Genome-wide screening in pluripotent cells identifies Mtf1 as a suppressor of mutant huntingtin toxicity.

Huntington's disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disorder caused by CAG-repeat expansions in the huntingtin (HTT) gene. The resulting mutant HTT (mHTT) protein induces toxicity and cell death via multiple mechanisms and no effective therapy is available. Here, we employ a genome-wide screening in pluripotent mouse embryonic stem cells (ESCs) to identify suppressors of mHTT toxicity. Among the identified suppressors, linked to HD-associated processes, we focus on Metal response element binding transcription factor 1 (Mtf1). Forced expression of Mtf1 counteracts cell death and oxidative stress caused by mHTT in mouse ESCs and in human neuronal precursor cells. In zebrafish, Mtf1 reduces malformations and apoptosis induced by mHTT. In R6/2 mice, Mtf1 ablates motor defects and reduces mHTT aggregates and oxidative stress. Our screening strategy enables a quick in vitro identification of promising suppressor genes and their validation in vivo, and it can be applied to other monogenic diseases.

Blood-Brain Barrier Integrity Is Perturbed in a Mecp2-Null Mouse Model of Rett Syndrome.

Rett syndrome (RTT, online MIM 312750) is a devastating neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by motor and cognitive disabilities. It is mainly caused by pathogenetic variants in the X-linked MECP2 gene, encoding an epigenetic factor crucial for brain functioning. Despite intensive studies, the RTT pathogenetic mechanism remains to be fully elucidated. Impaired vascular function has been previously reported in RTT mouse models; however, whether an altered brain vascular homeostasis and the subsequent blood-brain barrier (BBB) breakdown occur in RTT and contribute to the disease-related cognitive impairment is still unknown. Interestingly, in symptomatic Mecp2-null (Mecp2-/y, Mecp2tm1.1Bird) mice, we found enhanced BBB permeability associated with an aberrant expression of the tight junction proteins Ocln and Cldn-5 in different brain areas, in terms of both transcript and protein levels. Additionally, Mecp2-null mice showed an altered expression of different genes encoding factors with a role in the BBB structure and function, such as Cldn3, Cldn12, Mpdz, Jam2, and Aqp4. With this study, we provide the first evidence of impaired BBB integrity in RTT and highlight a potential new molecular hallmark of the disease that might open new perspectives for the setting-up of novel therapeutic strategies.

Treatment with the Glycosphingolipid Modulator THI Rescues Myelin Integrity in the Striatum of R6/2 HD Mice.

Huntington's disease is one of the most common dominantly inherited neurodegenerative disorders caused by an expansion of a polyglutamine (polyQ) stretch in the N-terminal region of huntingtin (Htt). Among all the molecular mechanisms, affected by the mutation, emerging evidence proposes glycosphingolipid dysfunction as one of the major determinants. High levels of sphingolipids have been found to localize in the myelin sheaths of oligodendrocytes, where they play an important role in myelination stability and functions. In this study, we investigated any potential existing link between sphingolipid modulation and myelin structure by performing both ultrastructural and biochemical analyses. Our findings demonstrated that the treatment with the glycosphingolipid modulator THI preserved myelin thickness and the overall structure and reduced both area and diameter of pathologically giant axons in the striatum of HD mice. These ultrastructural findings were associated with restoration of different myelin marker protein, such as myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG), myelin basic protein (MBP) and 2', 3' Cyclic Nucleotide 3'-Phosphodiesterase (CNP). Interestingly, the compound modulated the expression of glycosphingolipid biosynthetic enzymes and increased levels of GM1, whose elevation has been extensively reported to be associated with reduced toxicity of mutant Htt in different HD pre-clinical models. Our study further supports the evidence that the metabolism of glycosphingolipids may represent an effective therapeutic target for the disease.

Sphingolipids and impaired hypoxic stress responses in Huntington disease.

Huntington disease (HD) is a debilitating, currently incurable disease. Protein aggregation and metabolic deficits are pathological hallmarks but their link to neurodegeneration and symptoms remains debated. Here, we summarize alterations in the levels of different sphingolipids in an attempt to characterize sphingolipid patterns specific to HD, an additional molecular hallmark of the disease. Based on the crucial role of sphingolipids in maintaining cellular homeostasis, the dynamic regulation of sphingolipids upon insults and their involvement in cellular stress responses, we hypothesize that maladaptations or blunted adaptations, especially following cellular stress due to reduced oxygen supply (hypoxia) contribute to the development of pathology in HD. We review how sphingolipids shape cellular energy metabolism and control proteostasis and suggest how these functions may fail in HD and in combination with additional insults. Finally, we evaluate the potential of improving cellular resilience in HD by conditioning approaches (improving the efficiency of cellular stress responses) and the role of sphingolipids therein. Sphingolipid metabolism is crucial for cellular homeostasis and for adaptations following cellular stress, including hypoxia. Inadequate cellular management of hypoxic stress likely contributes to HD progression, and sphingolipids are potential mediators. Targeting sphingolipids and the hypoxic stress response are novel treatment strategies for HD.

Contemporary Management and Clinical Course of Acute Pulmonary Embolism: The COPE Study.

BACKGROUND: New diagnosis, risk stratification, and treatment strategies became recently available for patients with acute pulmonary embolism (PE) leading to changes in clinical practice and potentially influencing short-term patients' outcomes. RESEARCH QUESTION: The COntemporary management of PE (COPE) study is aimed at assessing the contemporary clinical management and outcomes in patients with acute symptomatic PE. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: Prospective, noninterventional, multicenter study. The co-primary study outcomes, in-hospital and 30-day death, were reported overall and by risk categories according to the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and American Heart Association guidelines. RESULTS: Among 5,213 study patients, PE was confirmed by computed tomography in 96.3%. In-hospital, 289 patients underwent reperfusion (5.5%), 92.1% received parenteral anticoagulants; at discharge, 75.6% received direct oral anticoagulants and 6.7% vitamin K antagonists. In-hospital and 30-day mortalities were 3.4 and 4.8%, respectively. In-hospital death occurred in 20.3% high-risk patients (n = 177), in 4.0% intermediate-risk patients (n = 3,281), and in 0.5% low-risk patients (n = 1,702) according to ESC guidelines. Further stratification in intermediate-high and intermediate-low risk patients did not reach statistical significance, but intermediate-risk patients with sPESI > 0 alone had lower mortality compared to those with one or both among right ventricular dilation at echocardiography or increased troponin. Death or clinical deterioration occurred in 1.5, 5.0, and 9.4% of patients at low, intermediate-low, and intermediate-high risk for death according to ESC guidelines. CONCLUSION: For the majority of patients with PE, contemporary initial management includes risk stratification and treatment with direct oral anticoagulants. In-hospital mortality remains high in intermediate and high-risk patients calling for and informing research focused on its reduction. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT03631810.

Common and Rare Variants in TMEM175 Gene Concur to the Pathogenesis of Parkinson's Disease in Italian Patients.

Parkinson's disease (PD) represents the most common neurodegenerative movement disorder. We recently identified 16 novel genes associated with PD. In this study, we focused the attention on the common and rare variants identified in the lysosomal K+ channel TMEM175. The study includes a detailed clinical and genetic analysis of 400 cases and 300 controls. Molecular studies were performed on patient-derived fibroblasts. The functional properties of the mutant channels were assessed by patch-clamp technique and co-immunoprecipitation. We have found that TMEM175 was highly expressed in dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta and in microglia of the cerebral cortex of the human brain. Four common variants were associated with PD, including two novel variants rs2290402 (c.-10C > T) and rs80114247 (c.T1022C, p.M341T), located in the Kozak consensus sequence and TM3II domain, respectively. We also disclosed 13 novel highly penetrant detrimental mutations in the TMEM175 gene associated with PD. At least nine of these mutations (p.R35C, p. R183X, p.A270T, p.P308L, p.S348L, p. L405V, p.R414W, p.P427fs, p.R481W) may be sufficient to cause the disease, and the presence of mutations of other genes correlated with an earlier disease onset. In vitro functional analysis of the ion channel encoded by the mutated TMEM175 gene revealed a loss of the K+ conductance and a reduced channel affinity for Akt. Moreover, we observed an impaired autophagic/lysosomal proteolytic flux and an increase expression of unfolded protein response markers in patient-derived fibroblasts. These data suggest that mutations in TMEM175 gene may contribute to the pathophysiology of PD.

Treatment with THI, an inhibitor of sphingosine-1-phosphate lyase, modulates glycosphingolipid metabolism and results therapeutically effective in experimental models of Huntington's disease.

Huntington's disease (HD) is a fatal neurodegenerative disorder with no effective cure currently available. Over the past few years our research has shown that alterations in sphingolipid metabolism represent a critical determinant in HD pathogenesis. In particular, aberrant metabolism of sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) has been reported in multiple disease settings, including human postmortem brains from HD patients. In this study, we investigate the potential therapeutic effect of the inhibition of S1P degradative enzyme SGPL1, by the chronic administration of the 2-acetyl-5-tetrahydroxybutyl imidazole (THI) inhibitor. We show that THI mitigated motor dysfunctions in both mouse and fly models of HD. The compound evoked the activation of pro-survival pathways, normalized levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor, preserved white matter integrity, and stimulated synaptic functions in HD mice. Metabolically, THI restored normal levels of hexosylceramides and stimulated the autophagic and lysosomal machinery, facilitating the reduction of nuclear inclusions of both wild-type and mutant huntingtin proteins.

Polysialic Acid Sustains the Hypoxia-Induced Migration and Undifferentiated State of Human Glioblastoma Cells.

Gliomas are the most common primary malignant brain tumors. Glioblastoma, IDH-wildtype (GBM, CNS WHO grade 4) is the most aggressive form of glioma and is characterized by extensive hypoxic areas that strongly correlate with tumor malignancy. Hypoxia promotes several processes, including stemness, migration, invasion, angiogenesis, and radio- and chemoresistance, that have direct impacts on treatment failure. Thus, there is still an increasing need to identify novel targets to limit GBM relapse. Polysialic acid (PSA) is a carbohydrate composed of a linear polymer of α2,8-linked sialic acids, primarily attached to the Neural Cell Adhesion Molecule (NCAM). It is considered an oncodevelopmental antigen that is re-expressed in various tumors. High levels of PSA-NCAM are associated with high-grade and poorly differentiated tumors. Here, we investigated the effect of PSA inhibition in GBM cells under low oxygen concentrations. Our main results highlight the way in which hypoxia stimulates polysialylation in U87-MG cells and in a GBM primary culture. By lowering PSA levels with the sialic acid analog, F-NANA, we also inhibited GBM cell migration and interfered with their differentiation influenced by the hypoxic microenvironment. Our findings suggest that PSA may represent a possible molecular target for the development of alternative pharmacological strategies to manage a devastating tumor like GBM.

Brain Region and Cell Compartment Dependent Regulation of Electron Transport System Components in Huntington's Disease Model Mice.

Huntington's disease (HD) is a rare hereditary neurodegenerative disorder characterized by multiple metabolic dysfunctions including defects in mitochondrial homeostasis and functions. Although we have recently reported age-related changes in the respiratory capacities in different brain areas in HD mice, the precise mechanisms of how mitochondria become compromised in HD are still poorly understood. In this study, we investigated mRNA and protein levels of selected subunits of electron transport system (ETS) complexes and ATP-synthase in the cortex and striatum of symptomatic R6/2 mice. Our findings reveal a brain-region-specific differential expression of both nuclear and mitochondrial-encoded ETS components, indicating defects of transcription, translation and/or mitochondrial import of mitochondrial ETS components in R6/2 mouse brains.

Differential Expression of Sphingolipid Metabolizing Enzymes in Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats: A Possible Substrate for Susceptibility to Brain and Kidney Damage.

Alterations in the metabolism of sphingolipids, a class of biologically active molecules in cell membranes with direct effect on vascular homeostasis, are increasingly recognized as important determinant in different vascular disorders. However, it is not clear whether sphingolipids are implicated in the pathogenesis of hypertension-related cerebrovascular and renal damage. In this study, we evaluated the existence of possible abnormalities related to the sphingolipid metabolism in the brain and kidneys of two well validated spontaneously hypertensive rat strains, the stroke-prone (SHRSP) and the stroke-resistant (SHRSR) models, as compared to the normotensive Wistar Kyoto (WKY) rat strain. Our results showed a global alteration in the metabolism of sphingolipids in both cerebral and renal tissues of both hypertensive strains as compared to the normotensive rat. However, few defects, such as reduced expression of enzymes involved in the metabolism/catabolism of sphingosine-1-phosphate and in the de novo biosynthetic pathways, were exclusively detected in the SHRSP. Although further studies are necessary to fully understand the significance of these findings, they suggest that defects in specific lipid molecules and/or their related metabolic pathways may likely contribute to the pathogenesis of hypertensive target organ damage and may eventually serve as future therapeutic targets to reduce the vascular consequences of hypertension.

Curcumin-Loaded Nanoparticles Based on Amphiphilic Hyaluronan-Conjugate Explored as Targeting Delivery System for Neurodegenerative Disorders.

Identification of molecules able to promote neuroprotective mechanisms can represent a promising therapeutic approach to neurodegenerative disorders including Huntington's disease. Curcumin is an antioxidant and neuroprotective agent, even though its efficacy is limited by its poor absorption, rapid metabolism, systemic elimination, and limited blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability. Herein, we report on novel biodegradable curcumin-containing nanoparticles to favor the compound delivery and potentially enhance its brain bioavailability. The prepared hyaluronan-based materials able to self-assemble in stable spherical nanoparticles, consist of natural fatty acids chemically conjugated to the natural polysaccharide. The aim of this study is to provide a possible effective delivery system for curcumin with the expectation that, after having released the drug at the specific site, the biopolymer can degrade to nontoxic fragments before renal excretion, since all the starting materials are provided by natural resource. Our findings demonstrate that curcumin-encapsulated nanoparticles enter the cells and reduce their susceptibility to apoptosis in an in vitro model of Huntington's disease.

The longevity-associated variant of BPIFB4 improves a CXCR4-mediated striatum-microglia crosstalk preventing disease progression in a mouse model of Huntington's disease.

The longevity-associated variant (LAV) of the bactericidal/permeability-increasing fold-containing family B member 4 (BPIFB4) has been found significantly enriched in long-living individuals. Neuroinflammation is a key player in Huntington's disease (HD), a neurodegenerative disorder caused by neural death due to expanded CAG repeats encoding a long polyglutamine tract in the huntingtin protein (Htt). Herein, we showed that striatal-derived cell lines with expanded Htt (STHdh Q111/111) expressed and secreted lower levels of BPIFB4, when compared with Htt expressing cells (STHdh Q7/7), which correlated with a defective stress response to proteasome inhibition. Overexpression of LAV-BPIFB4 in STHdh Q111/111 cells was able to rescue both the BPIFB4 secretory profile and the proliferative/survival response. According to a well-established immunomodulatory role of LAV-BPIFB4, conditioned media from LAV-BPIFB4-overexpressing STHdh Q111/111 cells were able to educate Immortalized Human Microglia-SV40 microglial cells. While STHdh Q111/111 dying cells were ineffective to induce a CD163 + IL-10high pro-resolving microglia compared to normal STHdh Q7/7, LAV-BPIFB4 transduction promptly restored the central immune control through a mechanism involving the stromal cell-derived factor-1. In line with the in vitro results, adeno-associated viral-mediated administration of LAV-BPIFB4 exerted a CXCR4-dependent neuroprotective action in vivo in the R6/2 HD mouse model by preventing important hallmarks of the disease including motor dysfunction, body weight loss, and mutant huntingtin protein aggregation. In this view, LAV-BPIFB4, due to its pleiotropic ability in both immune compartment and cellular homeostasis, may represent a candidate for developing new treatment for HD.

Stimulation of Sphingosine Kinase 1 (SPHK1) Is Beneficial in a Huntington's Disease Pre-clinical Model.

Although several agents have been identified to provide therapeutic benefits in Huntington disease (HD), the number of conventionally used treatments remains limited and only symptomatic. Thus, it is plausible that the need to identify new therapeutic targets for the development of alternative and more effective treatments is becoming increasingly urgent. Recently, the sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) axis has been reported to be a valid potential novel molecular target for therapy development in HD. Modulation of aberrant metabolism of S1P in HD has been proved to exert neuroprotective action in vitro settings including human HD iPSC-derived neurons. In this study, we investigated whether promoting S1P production by stimulating Sphingosine Kinase 1 (SPHK1) by the selective activator, K6PC-5, may have therapeutic benefit in vivo in R6/2 HD mouse model. Our findings indicate that chronic administration of 0.05 mg/kg K6PC-5 exerted an overall beneficial effect in R6/2 mice. It significantly slowed down the progressive motor deficit associated with disease progression, modulated S1P metabolism, evoked the activation of pro-survival pathways and markedly reduced the toxic mutant huntingtin (mHtt) aggregation. These results suggest that K6PC-5 may represent a future therapeutic option in HD and may potentially counteract the perturbed brain function induced by deregulated S1P pathways.

Author Correction: Defective Sphingosine-1-phosphate metabolism is a druggable target in Huntington's disease.

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