Simulation Teaching Associates: a Model Utilizing Senior Medical Students as Simulation Educators.

Student-as-teacher programs have become commonplace in undergraduate medical education over the past 15 years. Recognizing the important role of medical students as teachers, we created an innovative Simulation Teaching Associate elective to improve the quality and consistency of simulation education and to encourage and support medical students as future educators.

Mapping the Terrain of Faculty Development for Simulation: A Scoping Review.

ABSTRACT: Understanding what interventions and approaches are currently being used to improve the knowledge, skills, and effectiveness of instructors in simulation-based education is an integral step for carving out the future of simulation. The current study is a scoping review on the topic, to uncover what is known about faculty development for simulation-based education.We screened 3259 abstracts and included 35 studies in this scoping review. Our findings reveal a clear image that the landscape of faculty development in simulation is widely diverse, revealing an array of foundations, terrains, and peaks even within the same zone of focus. As the field of faculty development in simulation continues to mature, we would hope that greater continuity and cohesiveness across the literature would continue to grow as well. Recommendations provided here may help provide the pathway toward that aim.

Employing High-Fidelity Simulation for the High-Risk, Low-Frequency Diagnosis and Management of Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS).

Introduction: Acute radiation syndrome (ARS) is a high-risk, low-frequency diagnosis that can be fatal and is difficult to diagnose without an obvious history of ionizing radiation exposure. Methods: Twenty-two emergency medicine residents and one pharmacy resident participated in an hour-long simulation session. To accommodate all learners, the simulation was conducted eight times over a block of scheduled time (two to four learners/session). Sessions included a prebriefing, pre/post questionnaires, the ARS case, and a debriefing. Learners evaluated and managed a 47-year-old male (manikin) with the hematopoietic and cutaneous subsyndromes of ARS who presented with hand pain/erythema/edema and underlying signs of infection 2 weeks after an unrecognized radiation exposure. Learners had to perform a history and physical, recognize/manage abnormal vitals, order/interpret labs, consult appropriate disciplines, and initiate supportive care. Results: There was a mean reported increase in ability to recognize signs and symptoms of ARS (p < .001) and appropriately manage a patient with this condition (p = .03) even after controlling for baseline confidence in ability to make and manage uncommon diagnoses, respectively. Learners rated this simulation as a valuable learning experience, effective in teaching them how to diagnose and treat ARS, and one they would recommend to other health care professionals. Discussion: This simulation aimed to teach the diagnosis and initial management of the hematopoietic and cutaneous subsyndromes of ARS. It should be used to increase awareness of the potential for ionizing radiation exposure under less obvious conditions and raise the index of suspicion for ARS in the undifferentiated patient.

Why We Want Our Students to Learn about Poverty and Health Care: Sharing Our Own Experiences from Poverty Simulations.

Poverty is a leading cause of numerous health and social inequities in the United States. Educators are increasingly searching for ways to create meaningful learning opportunities about poverty and its profound effect on individuals and communities. In this narrative, we explore our own perspectives as faculty who guide students through a simulated poverty experience. This essay unfolds primarily as a dialogue among us as we make sense of and clarify why we participate in the coordination and facilitation of poverty simulations on our campus and their anticipated benefits for future health care professionals and social service providers.

Why We Want Our Students to Learn about Poverty and Healthcare: Sharing Our Students' Experiences from Poverty Simulations.

Poverty contributes to acute illness, chronic disease and health inequity among millions of Americans, yet health care providers often do not understand the daily experiences of those who live below the poverty line and how it affects their interactions with the health care system. In this narrative, we share healthcare students' stories and reflect on how they account for their experiences of participating in a poverty simulation. Their words come from reflection assignments, and when we read their words, that for a moment, many of our students understand that as a healthcare practitioner, they can make a difference in the life of someone living in poverty. We believe that this experience will inspire our students to make meaningful change as future healthcare professionals. We also believe that the impact on these students goes toward our collective goal as teachers of future healthcare providers to make a difference in our world.

Rapid Cycle Deliberate Practice: Application to Adult Advanced Life Support.

Introduction: This curriculum includes three in-person simulation cases for Advanced Cardiac Life Support (ACLS) training using the rapid cycle deliberate practice (RCDP) technique. RCDP is a model for simulation-based medical education (SBME) that provides frequent feedback and opportunities to practice techniques until learning is cemented. The intent of these cases was to improve teamwork and communication, role designation, defibrillator operation, leadership, and clinical treatment of cardiac emergencies. Methods: Each case provided an ACLS scenario for an adult patient in the postanesthesia care unit setting. The curriculum required high-fidelity mannequins and instructors trained to provide SBME through RCDP. Learners worked in teams and were expected to perform appropriate steps per the ACLS algorithm, with facilitators pausing learners and providing expert feedback and opportunities for deliberate practice throughout. Results: Eighty-four postgraduate year 2 anesthesiology residents participated in the simulation curriculum over eight course offerings. Facilitators noted improved communication and teamwork among participants, as well as more accurate and effective defibrillator use. Feedback from learners was positive and indicated that they believed the experience would improve their clinical performance. Discussion: This curriculum provides instruction on using the RCDP variant of SBME to prepare health care providers to deliver effective care in situations necessitating ACLS. Because RCDP allows for repeated iterations of the same skill, knowledge can be cemented and muscle memory created. Given the positive feedback, we believe the curriculum can provide an effective framework for ACLS reinforcement through RCDP implementation across multiple types of learners and institutions.

A Tribute to Chad Epps: A Mentor, Educator, Leader, Collaborator, and Friend.

SUMMARY STATEMENT: Dr Chad Epps' journey in healthcare simulation touched countless lives in his role as a mentor, educator, leader, collaborator, and friend. Here, we highlight Chad's lasting impact upon which we all stand today.

A Simulation Course Focusing on Forensic Evidence Collection Improves Pediatric Knowledge and Standardizes Curriculum for Child Abuse.

OBJECTIVES: Our hypothesis was that pediatric residents and medical students who participated in a structured forensic evidence collection course would have improved knowledge of prepubertal evidence collection practices and pubertal genital anatomy. METHODS: The course curriculum included a forensic evidence collection video created by the sexual assault nurse examiner directors. After watching the video, the participants simulated forensic evidence collection using forensic evidence collection kits and chain of evidence protocols in a hybrid simulation setting under the supervision of a pediatric sexual assault nurse examiner. The participants completed a multiple-choice test and a fill-in-the-blank anatomical diagram test before and after the course. RESULTS: Of an eligible 48 participants, 42 completed the course; therefore, our participant response rate was 87.5%. There was significant improvement in knowledge, with an average pretest score of 62% ± 20% and the average posttest score of 86% ± 9% (P < 0.001). Qualitative evaluations were overwhelmingly positive, with consistent scoring of 6/6 in a 6-point agree scale. Learning themes, which emerged from open-ended questions on the evaluations, included knowledge gained on evidence collection processes (n = 26), how to appropriately interact with abused patients (n = 8), hands-on nature of the experience and the benefits of walking through the examination (n = 7), and pubertal genital anatomy knowledge (n = 3). Participants suggested that more instruction on anatomy would be helpful. CONCLUSIONS: We found that pediatric residents' and medical students' knowledge of pediatric sexual abuse may be improved with a short simulation course focusing on forensic evidence collection.

Students' Evaluations of Simulations in Dentistry: A Multiple Cohort Study at a U.S. Dental School.

Simulation may help translate didactic learning to patient care in areas such as communication skills and medical emergency management. The aims of this study were to investigate how multiple cohorts of dental students evaluated simulations utilizing standardized patients and manikins and to explore evaluations of a simulation that combined social determinants of health with oral health education. All approximately 600 second- and fourth-year dental students at one U.S. dental school participated in simulation activities for five years (2014-18). The activities involved clinical communication skills with an urgent care patient, medical emergency management, and communication skills with a parent with low income. After the simulations, students were invited to complete an evaluation of the experience. Questionnaire items addressed perceived applicability to patient care, value of the experience, and fulfillment of objectives; and open-ended questions asked for comments specific to the parent with low income simulation. A total of 497 responses from D2 and D4 students were collected over the five-year period, as well as from all 12 periodontics residents in 2017, for an overall 91.7% response rate. The vast majority (>90.6%) positively evaluated all items for each simulation. The positive ratings ranged from a mean of 99.3% for the urgent care simulation to 93.8% for the parent with low income simulation. Positive student comments often related to learning from/with others and effective practice of teach back and patient education tactics. Students' most frequent suggestions for improvement called for better preparation. In this study, simulations with both standardized patients and manikins led to positive evaluations as well as anticipated improvement of clinical performance. These results suggest that incorporating simulation into an already-crowded curriculum is worth it from the student perspective, especially for reinforcement of clinical skills not easily amenable to classroom instruction.

Effect of interprofessional (IP) faculty development on perceptions of IP collaboration and on IP behaviors.

Positive interprofessional (IP) collaboration is an expectation in healthcare to ensure positive patient care outcomes, and IP faculty development is one way to promote self-efficacy gains. Our pilot study assessed interprofessional behaviors and positive interprofessional perceptions with faculty/staff using two interventions. We hypothesized that increased interprofessional faculty development in simulation would have a positive effect on faculty/staff behavior and would result in increased positivity regarding interprofessional behaviors. We collected data on positive IP perceptions. The interventions included standard and intensive faculty development in simulation as compared to a control. Our mixed-method study design consisted of qualitative and quantitative assessments, including focus group interviews and demographics and Interdisciplinary Education Perception Scale (IEPS) questionnaires. Assessments occurred at baseline, 1-3 months and 3-6 months. Data suggested better retention of positive interprofessional perceptions in the intensive training group; however, all groups had a gradual decline in positive interprofessional perceptions. Our outcomes contribute to the literature focused on improved collaborative patient care.

Comparison of recidivism rates for a teenage trauma prevention program after the addition of high-fidelity patient simulation.

OBJECTIVES: We evaluated the benefits of adding high-fidelity simulation to a teenage trauma prevention program to decrease recidivism rates and encourage teens to discuss actionable steps toward safe driving. METHODS: A simulated pediatric trauma scenario was integrated into an established trauma prevention program. Participants were recruited because they were court-ordered to attend this program after misdemeanor convictions for moving violations. The teenage participants viewed this simulation from the emergency medical services (EMS) handoff to complete trauma care. Participants completed a postsimulation knowledge assessment and care evaluation, which included narrative data about the experience. Qualitative analysis of color-coded responses identified common themes and experiences in participants' answers. Court records were reviewed 6 years after course completion to determine short- and long-term recidivism rates, which were then compared to our program's historical rate. RESULTS: One hundred twenty-four students aged 16-20 years participated over a 2-year study period. Narrative responses included general reflection, impressions, and thoughts about what they might change as a result of the course. Participants reported that they would decrease speed (30%), wear seat belts (15%), decrease cell phone use (11%), and increase caution (28%). The recidivism rate was 55% within 6 years. At 6 months it was 8.4%, at 1 year it was 20%, and it increased approximately 5-8% per year after the first year. Compared with our programs, for historical 6-month and 2-year recidivism rates, no significant difference was seen with or without simulation. CONCLUSIONS: Adding simulation is well received by participants and leads to positive reflections regarding changes in risk-taking behaviors but resulted in no changes to the high recidivism rates This may be due to the often ineffectiveness of fear appeals.

Effectiveness of Standardized Patient Simulations in Teaching Clinical Communication Skills to Dental Students.

The aim of this study was to investigate dental students' long-term retention of clinical communication skills learned in a second-year standardized patient simulation at one U.S. dental school. Retention was measured by students' performance with an actual patient during their fourth year. The high-fidelity simulation exercise focused on clinical communication skills took place during the spring term of the students' second year. The effect of the simulation was measured by comparing the fourth-year clinical performance of two groups: those who had participated in the simulation (intervention group; Class of 2016) and those who had not (no intervention/control group; Class of 2015). In the no intervention group, all 47 students participated; in the intervention group, 58 of 59 students participated. Both instructor assessments and students' self-assessments were used to evaluate the effectiveness of key patient interaction principles as well as comprehensive presentation of multiple treatment options. The results showed that students in the intervention group more frequently included cost during their treatment option presentation than did students in the no intervention group. The instructor ratings showed that the intervention group included all key treatment option components except duration more frequently than did the no intervention group. However, the simulation experience did not result in significantly more effective student-patient clinical communication on any of the items measured. This study presents limited evidence of the effectiveness of a standardized patient simulation to improve dental students' long-term clinical communication skills with respect to thorough presentation of treatment options to a patient.

Causes for Pauses During Simulated Pediatric Cardiac Arrest.

OBJECTIVES: Pauses in cardiopulmonary resuscitation negatively impact clinical outcomes; however, little is known about the contributing factors. The objective of this study is to determine the frequency, duration, and causes for pauses during cardiac arrest. DESIGN: This is a secondary analysis of video data collected from a prospective multicenter trial. Twenty-six simulated pediatric cardiac arrest scenarios each lasting 12 minutes in duration were analyzed by two independent reviewers to document events surrounding each pause in chest compressions. SETTING: Ten children's hospitals across Canada, the United, and the United Kingdom. SUBJECTS: Resuscitation teams composed of three healthcare providers trained in cardiopulmonary resuscitation. INTERVENTIONS: A simulated pediatric cardiac arrest case in a 5 year old. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: The frequency, duration, and associated factors for each pause were recorded. Communication was rated using a four-point scale reflecting the team's shared mental model. Two hundred fifty-six pauses were reviewed with a median of 10 pauses per scenario (interquartile range, 7-12). Median pause duration was 5 seconds (interquartile range, 2-9 s), with 91% chest compression fraction per scenario (interquartile range, 88-94%). Only one task occurred during most pauses (66%). The most common tasks were a change of chest compressors (25%), performing pulse check (24%), and performing rhythm check (15%). Forty-nine (19%) of the pauses lasted greater than 10 seconds and were associated with shock delivery (p < 0.001), performing rhythm check (p < 0.001), and performing pulse check (p < 0.001). When a shared mental model was rated high, pauses were significantly shorter (mean difference, 4.2 s; 95% CI, 1.6-6.8 s; p = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS: Pauses in cardiopulmonary resuscitation occurred frequently during simulated pediatric cardiac arrest, with variable duration and underlying causes. A large percentage of pauses were greater than 10 seconds and occurred more frequently than the recommended 2-minute interval. Future efforts should focus on improving team coordination to minimize pause frequency and duration.

Workload of Team Leaders and Team Members During a Simulated Sepsis Scenario.

OBJECTIVES: Crisis resource management principles dictate appropriate distribution of mental and/or physical workload so as not to overwhelm any one team member. Workload during pediatric emergencies is not well studied. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration-Task Load Index is a multidimensional tool designed to assess workload validated in multiple settings. Low workload is defined as less than 40, moderate 40-60, and greater than 60 signify high workloads. Our hypothesis is that workload among both team leaders and team members is moderate to high during a simulated pediatric sepsis scenario and that team leaders would have a higher workload than team members. DESIGN: Multicenter observational study. SETTING: Nine pediatric simulation centers (five United States, three Canada, and one United Kingdom). PATIENTS: Team leaders and team members during a 12-minute pediatric sepsis scenario. INTERVENTIONS: National Aeronautics and Space Administration-Task Load Index. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: One hundred twenty-seven teams were recruited from nine sites. One hundred twenty-seven team leaders and 253 team members completed the National Aeronautics and Space Administration-Task Load Index. Team leader had significantly higher overall workload than team member (51 ± 11 vs 44 ± 13; p < 0.01). Team leader had higher workloads in all subcategories except in performance where the values were equal and in physical demand where team members were higher than team leaders (29 ± 22 vs 18 ± 16; p < 0.01). The highest category for each group was mental 73 ± 13 for team leader and 60 ± 20 for team member. For team leader, two categories, mental (73 ± 17) and effort (66 ± 16), were high workload, most domains for team member were moderate workload levels. CONCLUSIONS: Team leader and team member are under moderate workloads during a pediatric sepsis scenario with team leader under high workloads (> 60) in the mental demand and effort subscales. Team leader average significantly higher workloads. Consideration of decreasing team leader responsibilities may improve team workload distribution.

Simulation Faculty Development: A Tiered Approach.

STATEMENT: Simulation faculty development has become a high priority for the past couple of years because simulation programs have rapidly expanded in health systems and universities worldwide. A formalized, structured model for developing quality facilitators of simulation is helpful to support and sustain this continued growth in the field of simulation. In this article, we present a tiered faculty development plan that has been implemented at a university in the United States and includes the essentials of faculty development. We discuss the rationale and benefits of a tiered faculty development program as well as describe our certification plan. The article concludes with lessons learned throughout the process of implementation.

Interprofessional, multiple step simulation course improves pediatric resident and nursing staff management of pediatric patients with diabetic ketoacidosis.

AIM: To investigate the use of a multidisciplinary, longitudinal simulation to educate pediatric residents and nurses on management of pediatric diabetic ketoacidosis. METHODS: A multidisciplinary, multiple step simulation course was developed by faculty and staff using a modified Delphi method from the Pediatric Simulation Center and pediatric endocrinology department. Effectiveness of the simulation for the residents was measured with a pre- and post-test and a reference group not exposed to simulation. A follow up post-test was completed 3-6 mo after the simulation. Nurses completed a survey regarding the education activity. RESULTS: Pediatric and medicine-pediatric residents (n = 20) and pediatric nurses (n = 25) completed the simulation course. Graduating residents (n = 16) were used as reference group. Pretest results were similar in the control and intervention group (74% ± 10% vs 76% ± 15%, P = 0.658). After completing the intervention, participants improved in the immediate post-test in comparison to themselves and the control group (84% ± 12% post study; P < 0.05). The 3-6 mo follow up post-test results demonstrated knowledge decay when compared to their immediate post-test results (78% ± 14%, P = 0.761). Residents and nurses felt the interdisciplinary and longitudinal nature of the simulation helped with learning. CONCLUSION: Results suggest a multidisciplinary, longitudinal simulation improves immediate post-intervention knowledge but important knowledge decay occurs, future studies are needed to determine ways to decrease this decay.

Variability in quality of chest compressions provided during simulated cardiac arrest across nine pediatric institutions.

AIM: The variability in quality of CPR provided during cardiac arrest across pediatric institutions is unknown. We aimed to describe the degree of variability in the quality of CPR across 9 pediatric institutions, and determine if variability across sites would be affected by Just-in-Time CPR training and/or visual feedback during simulated cardiac arrest. METHODS: We conducted secondary analyses of data collected from a prospective, multi-center trial. Participants were equally randomized to either: (1) No intervention; (2) Real-time CPR visual feedback during cardiac arrest or (3) Just-in-Time CPR training. We report the variability in median chest compression depth and rate across institutions, and the variability in the proportion of 30-s epochs of CPR meeting 2010 American Heart Association guidelines for depth and rate. RESULTS: We analyzed data from 528 epochs in the no intervention group, 552 epochs in the visual feedback group, and 525 epochs in the JIT training group. In the no intervention group, compression depth (median range 22.2-39.2mm) and rate (median range 116.0-147.6 min(-1)) demonstrated significant variability between study sites (p<0.001). The proportion of compressions with adequate depth (0-11.5%) and rate (0-60.5%) also varied significantly across sites (p<0.001). The variability in compression depth and rate persisted despite use of real-time visual feedback or JIT training (p<0.001). CONCLUSION: The quality of CPR across multiple pediatric institutions is variable. Variability in CPR quality across institutions persists even with the implementation of a Just-in-Time training session and visual feedback for CPR quality during simulated cardiac arrest.

Simulation and Faculty Development.

As members of the faculty, surgeons take on a variety of roles related to the use of simulation. Surgeons will continue to interact with simulation as learners given the emerging role of simulation in continuing medical education. Surgeons who regularly teach others will also be using simulation because of its unique properties as an instructional method. Leading a simulation effort requires vision, creativity in resource management, and team leadership skills. Surgeons can use simulation to innovate in surgical patient care and in surgical education.