Bioinspired Scaffold Action Under the Extreme Physiological Conditions of Simulated Space Flights: Osteogenesis Enhancing Under Microgravity.

Prolonged exposure to microgravity (MG) during long-duration space flights is known to induce severe dysregulation of osteoblast functions connected to a significant bone loss, similar to the condition induced by osteoporosis. Hence, we here present MG as a promising model to challenge the effectiveness of new scaffolds designed for bone regeneration in counteracting bone loss. To this end, we carried out an integrative study aimed to evaluate, in the extreme condition of Random Positioning Machine-simulated MG, the osteoinductive potential of nanocrystalline magnesium-doped hydroxyapatite/type I collagen composite scaffold (MHA/Coll), that we previously demonstrated to be an excellent tool for bone tissue engineering. Initially, to test the osteoinductive properties of our bioinspired-scaffold, MHA/Coll structure was fully characterized under MG condition and compared to its static counterpart. Human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells were used to investigate the scaffold biocompatibility and ability to promote osteogenic differentiation after long-duration exposure to MG (up to 21 days). The results demonstrate that the nanostructure of MHA/Coll scaffold can alleviate MG-induced osteoblast dysfunction, promoting cell differentiation along the osteogenic lineage, with a consequent reduction in the expression of the surface markers CD29, CD44, and CD90. Moreover, these findings were corroborated by the ability of MHA/Coll to induce the expression of genes linked to osteogenesis, including alkaline phosphatase and osteocalcin. This study confirmed MHA/Coll capabilities in promoting osteogenesis even in extreme long-term condition of MG, suggesting MG as an effective challenging model to apply in future studies to validate the ability of advanced scaffolds to counteract bone loss, facilitating their application in translational Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering.

Band 3 Erythrocyte Membrane Protein Acts as Redox Stress Sensor Leading to Its Phosphorylation by p (72) Syk.

In erythrocytes, the regulation of the redox sensitive Tyr phosphorylation of band 3 and its functions are still partially defined. A role of band 3 oxidation in regulating its own phosphorylation has been previously suggested. The current study provides evidences to support this hypothesis: (i) in intact erythrocytes, at 2 mM concentration of GSH, band 3 oxidation, and phosphorylation, Syk translocation to the membrane and Syk phosphorylation responded to the same micromolar concentrations of oxidants showing identical temporal variations; (ii) the Cys residues located in the band 3 cytoplasmic domain are 20-fold more reactive than GSH; (iii) disulfide linked band 3 cytoplasmic domain docks Syk kinase; (iv) protein Tyr phosphatases are poorly inhibited at oxidant concentrations leading to massive band 3 oxidation and phosphorylation. We also observed that hemichromes binding to band 3 determined its irreversible oxidation and phosphorylation, progressive hemolysis, and serine hyperphosphorylation of different cytoskeleton proteins. Syk inhibitor suppressed the phosphorylation of band 3 also preventing serine phosphorylation changes and hemolysis. Our data suggest that band 3 acts as redox sensor regulating its own phosphorylation and that hemichromes leading to the protracted phosphorylation of band 3 may trigger a cascade of events finally leading to hemolysis.

Signal transduction in primary human T lymphocytes in altered gravity during parabolic flight and clinostat experiments.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Several limiting factors for human health and performance in microgravity have been clearly identified arising from the immune system, and substantial research activities are required in order to provide the basic information for appropriate integrated risk management. The gravity-sensitive nature of cells of the immune system renders them an ideal biological model in search for general gravity-sensitive mechanisms and to understand how the architecture and function of human cells is related to the gravitational force and therefore adapted to life on Earth. METHODS: We investigated the influence of altered gravity in parabolic flight and 2D clinostat experiments on key proteins of activation and signaling in primary T lymphocytes. We quantified components of the signaling cascade 1.) in non-activated T lymphocytes to assess the "basal status" of the cascade and 2.) in the process of activation to assess the signal transduction. RESULTS: We found a rapid decrease of CD3 and IL-2R surface expression and reduced p-LAT after 20 seconds of altered gravity in non-activated primary T lymphocytes during parabolic flight. Furthermore, we observed decreased CD3 surface expression, reduced ZAP-70 abundance and increased histone H3-acetylation in activated T lymphocytes after 5 minutes of clinorotation and a transient downregulation of CD3 and stable downregulation of IL-2R during 60 minutes of clinorotation. CONCLUSION: CD3 and IL-2R are downregulated in primary T lymphocytes in altered gravity. We assume that a gravity condition around 1g is required for the expression of key surface receptors and appropriate regulation of signal molecules in T lymphocytes.

T cell tyrosine phosphorylation response to transient redox stress.

Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) are crucial to multiple biological processes involved in the pathophysiology of inflammation, and are also involved in redox signaling responses. Although previous reports have described an association between oxidative events and the modulation of innate immunity, a role for redox signaling in T cell mediated adaptive immunity has not been described yet. This work aims at assessing if T cells can sense redox stress through protein sulfhydryl oxidation and respond with tyrosine phosphorylation changes. Our data show that Jurkat T cells respond to -SH group oxidation with specific tyrosine phosphorylation events. The release of T cell cytokines TNF, IFNγ and IL2 as well as the expression of a number of receptors are affected by those changes. Additionally, experiments with spleen tyrosine kinase (Syk) inhibitors showed a major involvement of Syk in these responses. The experiments described herein show a link between cysteine oxidation and tyrosine phosphorylation changes in T cells, as well as a novel mechanism by which Syk inhibitors exert their anti-inflammatory activity through the inhibition of a response initiated by ROS.

Immunomodulatory properties of carbon nanotubes are able to compensate immune function dysregulation caused by microgravity conditions.

Spaceflights lead to dysregulation of the immune cell functionality affecting the expression of activation markers and cytokine production. Short oxidized multi-walled carbon nanotubes functionalized by 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition have been reported to activate immune cells. In this Communication we have performed surface marker assays and multiplex ELISA on primary monocytes and T cells under microgravity. We have discovered that carbon nanotubes, through their immunostimulatory properties, are able to fight spaceflight immune system dysregulations.

Signal transduction in primary human T lymphocytes in altered gravity - results of the MASER-12 suborbital space flight mission.

We investigated the influence of altered gravity on key proteins of T cell activation during the MASER-12 ballistic suborbital rocket mission of the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Swedish Space Cooperation (SSC) at ESRANGE Space Center (Kiruna, Sweden). We quantified components of the T cell receptor, the membrane proximal signaling, MAPK-signaling, IL-2R, histone modifications and the cytoskeleton in non-activated and in ConA/CD28-activated primary human T lymphocytes. The hypergravity phase during the launch resulted in a downregulation of the IL-2 and CD3 receptor and reduction of tyrosine phosphorylation, p44/42-MAPK phosphorylation and histone H3 acetylation, whereas LAT phosphorylation was increased. Compared to the baseline situation at the point of entry into the microgravity phase, CD3 and IL-2 receptor expression at the surface of non-activated T cells were reduced after 6 min microgravity. Importantly, p44/42-MAPK-phosphorylation was also reduced after 6 min microgravity compared to the 1g ground controls, but also in direct comparison between the in-flight µg and the 1g group. In activated T cells, the reduced CD3 and IL-2 receptor expression at the baseline situation recovered significantly during in-flight 1g conditions, but not during microgravity conditions. Beta-tubulin increased significantly after onset of microgravity until the end of the microgravity phase, but not in the in-flight 1g condition. This study suggests that key proteins of T cell signal modules are not severely disturbed in microgravity. Instead, it can be supposed that the strong T cell inhibiting signal occurs downstream from membrane proximal signaling, such as at the transcriptional level as described recently. However, the MASER-12 experiment could identify signal molecules, which are sensitive to altered gravity, and indicates that gravity is obviously not only a requirement for transcriptional processes as described before, but also for specific phosphorylation / dephosphorylation of signal molecules and surface receptor dynamics.

Effect of heterozygous beta thalassemia on the phosphorylative response to Plasmodium falciparum infection.

Malaria parasites interact with the host cell membrane inserting new proteins and inducing oxidative and phosphorylative changes of erythrocyte proteins. In the present report we monitored the time dependent oxidative and phosphorylative modifications induced by parasites in heterozygous beta thalassemia (Het-ßThal). Het-ßThal causes mild anemia and is known to determine a pro-oxidant milieu and a protective effect against severe malaria. In malaria cultures Het-ßThal has been reported to induce accumulation of hemoglobin denaturation products. At early parasite development stages (rings), tyrosine hyper-phosphorylation of band 3 was the most notable modification, and at later development stages (trophozoites), additional membrane proteins displayed significant hyper-phosphorylation of their serine and tyrosine residues (adducins, ankyrin, catalase). Het-ßThal also caused membrane destabilization. Free radical scavengers effectively inhibited the phosphorylative response and membrane destabilization. Kinase inhibitors exerted similar effects suggesting a causal relationship between oxidative stress, membrane protein hyper-phosphorylation and increased membrane damage exacerbated by Het-ßThal. In conclusion, different lines of evidence suggest that Het-ßThal enhances the redox stress caused by malaria parasites inducing its protective effect destabilizing the host cell membrane. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Integrated omics.

The Rel/NF-κB pathway and transcription of immediate early genes in T cell activation are inhibited by microgravity.

This study tested the hypothesis that transcription of immediate early genes is inhibited in T cells activated in µg. Immunosuppression during spaceflight is a major barrier to safe, long-term human space habitation and travel. The goals of these experiments were to prove that µg was the cause of impaired T cell activation during spaceflight, as well as understand the mechanisms controlling early T cell activation. T cells from four human donors were stimulated with Con A and anti-CD28 on board the ISS. An on-board centrifuge was used to generate a 1g simultaneous control to isolate the effects of µg from other variables of spaceflight. Microarray expression analysis after 1.5 h of activation demonstrated that µg- and 1g-activated T cells had distinct patterns of global gene expression and identified 47 genes that were significantly, differentially down-regulated in µg. Importantly, several key immediate early genes were inhibited in µg. In particular, transactivation of Rel/NF-κB, CREB, and SRF gene targets were down-regulated. Expression of cREL gene targets were significantly inhibited, and transcription of cREL itself was reduced significantly in µg and upon anti-CD3/anti-CD28 stimulation in simulated µg. Analysis of gene connectivity indicated that the TNF pathway is a major early downstream effector pathway inhibited in µg and may lead to ineffective proinflammatory host defenses against infectious pathogens during spaceflight. Results from these experiments indicate that µg was the causative factor for impaired T cell activation during spaceflight by inhibiting transactivation of key immediate early genes.

5-Lipoxygenase-dependent apoptosis of human lymphocytes in the International Space Station: data from the ROALD experiment.

The functional adaptation of the immune system to the surrounding environment is also a fundamental issue in space. It has been suggested that a decreased number of lymphocytes might be a cause of immunosuppression, possibly due to the induction of apoptosis. Early activation of 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX) might play a central role in the initiation of the apoptotic program. The goal of the role of apoptosis in lymphocyte depression (ROALD) experiment, flown on the International Space Station as part of the BIO-4 mission of the European Space Agency, was to ascertain the induction of apoptosis in human lymphocytes under authentic microgravity, and to elucidate the possible involvement of 5-LOX. Our results demonstrate that exposure of human lymphocytes to microgravity for 48 h onboard the ISS remarkably increased apoptotic hallmarks such as DNA fragmentation (∼3-fold compared to ground-based controls) and cleaved-poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) protein expression (∼3-fold), as well as mRNA levels of apoptosis-related markers such as p53 (∼3-fold) and calpain (∼4-fold); these changes were paralleled by an early increase of 5-LOX activity (∼2-fold). Our findings provide a molecular background for the immune dysfunction observed in astronauts during space missions, and reveal potential new markers to monitor health status of ISS crew members.

New antimalarial indolone-N-oxides, generating radical species, destabilize the host cell membrane at early stages of Plasmodium falciparum growth: role of band 3 tyrosine phosphorylation.

Although indolone-N-oxide (INODs) genereting long-lived radicals possess antiplasmodial activity in the low-nanomolar range, little is known about their mechanism of action. To explore the molecular basis of INOD activity, we screened for changes in INOD-treated malaria-infected erythrocytes (Pf-RBCs) using a proteomics approach. At early parasite maturation stages, treatment with INODs at their IC(50) concentrations induced a marked tyrosine phosphorylation of the erythrocyte membrane protein band 3, whereas no effect was observed in control RBCs. After INOD treatment of Pf-RBCs we also observed: (i) accelerated formation of membrane aggregates containing hyperphosphorylated band 3, Syk kinase, and denatured hemoglobin; (ii) dose-dependent release of microvesicles containing the membrane aggregates; (iii) reduction in band 3 phosphorylation, Pf-RBC vesiculation, and antimalarial effect of INODs upon addition of Syk kinase inhibitors; and (iv) correlation between the IC(50) and the INOD concentrations required to induce band 3 phosphorylation and vesiculation. Together with previous data demonstrating that tyrosine phosphorylation of oxidized band 3 promotes its dissociation from the cytoskeleton, these results suggest that INODs cause a profound destabilization of the Pf-RBC membrane through a mechanism apparently triggered by the activation of a redox signaling pathway rather than direct oxidative damage.

Space flight affects motility and cytoskeletal structures in human monocyte cell line J-111.

Certain functions of immune cells in returning astronauts are known to be altered. A dramatic depression of the mitogenic in vitro activation of human lymphocytes was observed in low gravity. T-cell activation requires the interaction of different type of immune cells as T-lymphocytes and monocytes. Cell motility based on a continuous rearrangement of the cytoskeletal network within the cell is essential for cell-cell contacts. In this investigation on the International Space Station we studied the influence of low gravity on different cytoskeletal structures in adherent monocytes and their ability to migrate. J-111 monocytes were incubated on a colloid gold substrate attached to a cover slide. Migrating cells removed the colloid gold, leaving a track recording cell motility. A severe reduction of the motility of J-111 cells was found in low gravity compared to 1g in-flight and ground controls. Cell shape appeared more contracted, whereas the control cells showed the typical morphology of migrating monocytes, i.e., elongated and with pseudopodia. A qualitative and quantitative analysis of the structures of F-actin, ß-tubulin and vinculin revealed that exposure of J-111 cells to low gravity affected the distribution of the different filaments and significantly reduced the fluorescence intensity of F-actin fibers. Cell motility relies on an intact structure of different cytoskeletal elements. The highly reduced motility of monocytes in low gravity must be attributed to the observed severe disruption of the cytoskeletal structures and may be one of the reasons for the dramatic depression of the in vitro activation of human lymphocytes.

Irreversible AE1 tyrosine phosphorylation leads to membrane vesiculation in G6PD deficient red cells.

BACKGROUND: While G6PD deficiency is one of the major causes of acute hemolytic anemia, the membrane changes leading to red cell lysis have not been extensively studied. New findings concerning the mechanisms of G6PD deficient red cell destruction may facilitate our understanding of the large individual variations in susceptibility to pro-oxidant compounds and aid the prediction of the hemolytic activity of new drugs. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Our results show that treatment of G6PD deficient red cells with diamide (0.25 mM) or divicine (0.5 mM) causes: (1) an increase in the oxidation and tyrosine phosphorylation of AE1; (2) progressive recruitment of phosphorylated AE1 in large membrane complexes which also contain hemichromes; (3) parallel red cell lysis and a massive release of vesicles containing hemichromes. We have observed that inhibition of AE1 phosphorylation by Syk kinase inhibitors prevented its clustering and the membrane vesiculation while increases in AE1 phosphorylation by tyrosine phosphatase inhibitors increased both red cell lysis and vesiculation rates. In control RBCs we observed only transient AE1 phosphorylation. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Collectively, our findings indicate that persistent tyrosine phosphorylation produces extensive membrane destabilization leading to the loss of vesicles which contain hemichromes. The proposed mechanism of hemolysis may be applied to other hemolytic diseases characterized by the accumulation of hemoglobin denaturation products.

Modification of proteins secreted by endothelial cells during modeled low gravity exposure.

The exposure of the human body to microgravity, conditions that occurs during space flights, causes significant changes in the cardiovascular system. Many cell types have been involved in these changes, and the endothelium seems to play a major role. In endothelial cells (EC), it has been shown that modeled low gravity impairs nitric oxide synthesis, cell adhesion, extracellular matrix composition, cytoskeleton organization, cytokines, and growth factors secretion. Nevertheless, detailed analysis of EC physiological changes induced by microgravity exposure is still lacking. Secretome analysis is one of the most promising approaches for the identification of biomarkers directly related to the physiopathological cellular state. In this study, we analyzed in details the modifications of EC secretome by using umbilical vein endothelial (HUVE) cells exposed to modeled low gravity conditions. By adopting a two-dimensional (2-D) proteomic approach, in conjunction with a technique for the compression of the dynamic range of proteins, we observed that modeled low gravity exposure of HUVE cells affected the secretion of proteins involved in the regulation of cytoskeleton assembly. Moreover, by using Luminex® suspension array systems, we found that the low gravity condition decreased in ECs the secretion of some key pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-1α and IL-8, and of the pro-angiogenic factor bFGF. On the contrary, microgravity increase the secretion of two chemokines (Rantes and Eotaxin), involved in leukocytes recruitment.

Analysis of changes in tyrosine and serine phosphorylation of red cell membrane proteins induced by P. falciparum growth.

Phosphorylation of erythrocyte membrane proteins has been previously documented following infection and intracellular growth of the malarial parasite, Plasmodium falciparum in red cells. Much of this data dealt with phosphorylation of serine residues. In this study, we report detailed characterization of phosphorylation of serine and tyrosine residues of red cell membrane proteins following infection by P falciparum. Western blot analysis using anti-phosphotyrosine and anti-phosphoserine antibodies following 2-DE in conjunction with double channel laser-induced infrared fluorescence enabled accurate assessment of phosphorylation changes. Tyrosine phosphorylation of band 3 represented the earliest modification observed during parasite development. Band 3 tyrosine phosphorylation observed at the ring stage appears to be under the control of Syk kinase. Serine and tyrosine phosphorylation of additional cytoskeletal, trans-membrane and membrane associated proteins was documented as intracellular development of parasite progressed. Importantly, during late schizont stage of parasite maturation, we observed widespread protein dephosphorylation. In vitro treatments that caused distinct activation of red cell tyrosine and serine kinases elicited phosphorylative patterns similar to what observed in parasitized red blood cell, suggesting primary involvement of erythrocyte kinases. Identification of tyrosine phosphorylations of band 3, band 4.2, catalase and actin which have not been previously described in P. falciparum infected red cells suggests new potential regulatory mechanisms that could modify the functions of the host cell membrane.

Involvement of adenosine A1 and A2A receptors in (-)-linalool-induced antinociception.

In recent studies performed in our laboratory we have shown that acute administration of (-)-linalool, the natural occurring enantiomer in essential oils, possesses anti-inflammatory, antihyperalgesic and antinociceptive effects in different animal models. The antihyperalgesic and antinociceptive effects of (-)-linalool have been ascribed to its capacity in stimulating the opioidergic, cholinergic and dopaminergic systems, as well as to its interaction with K+ channels, or to its local anaesthetic activity and/or to the negative modulation of glutamate transmission. Activation of A1 or A2A receptors has been shown to induce antinociceptive effects, and the possible involvement of adenosine in (-)-linalool antinociceptive effect, has not been elucidated yet. Therefore, in the present study, we have investigated the effects of 1,3-dipropyl-8-cyclopentylxanthine (DPCPX), a selective adenosine A1 receptor antagonist and the effects of 3,7-dimethyl-1-propargilxanthine (DMPX), a selective adenosine A2A receptor antagonist on the antinociception of (-)-linalool in mice, measured in the hot-plate test. Both DPCPX (0.1 mg/kg; i.p.) and DMPX (0.1 mg/kg; i.p.) pre-treatment significantly depressed the antinociceptive effect of (-)-linalool at the highest doses tested. These findings demonstrated that the effect of (-)-linalool on pain responses is, at least partially, mediated by the activity of adenosine A1 and A2A receptors.

Exposure of human lymphocytes and lymphoblastoid cells to simulated microgravity strongly affects energy metabolism and DNA repair.

Exposure of freshly drawn lymphocytes and lymphoblastoid cells (LB and COR3) to simulated microgravity decreased the intracellular ATP concentration to 50%-40% of the value found in normal growth conditions. The decrease was reversible although recovery to normal values occurred only slowly both in lymphocytes and in lymphoblastoid cells. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP ) activity was increased indicating that cells exposed to conditions of reduced gravitation experience stress. Exposure to microgravity forces cells into a condition of metabolic quiescence in which they appear to be particularly sensitive to subsequent exposures to a genotoxic agent. Thus, treatment of cells with the strong redox agent potassium bromate under microgravity conditions, indicated an impairment in repair of DNA 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), an oxidized derivative of deoxyguanosine. We conclude that gravitational modulation of the kind routinely obtained under laboratory conditions and during spaceflights is a stressful process to which cells appear to be extremely sensitive. These effects may reflect the physiological alterations observed in astronauts and in animals following spaceflights or exposure to conditions of simulated microgravity.

Effects of (-)-linalool in the acute hyperalgesia induced by carrageenan, L-glutamate and prostaglandin E2.

A series of studies performed in our laboratory have shown that (-)-linalool, the natural occurring enantiomer in essential oils, possesses anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive effects in different animal models. The antinociceptive effect of (-)-linalool has been ascribed to the stimulation of the cholinergic, opioidergic and dopaminergic systems, to its local anesthetic activity and to the blockade of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors. In this study, we investigated the effect of systemic administration of (-)-linalool in the paw withdrawal test in rats, a model of thermal hyperalgesia induced by monolateral subplantar injection of carrageenan, L-glutamate or prostaglandin E(2). Carrageenan and L-glutamate induced a hyperalgesic effect on the injection side. In contrast, prostaglandin E(2) induced hyperalgesia in both the injection side and the contralateral side. Pretreatment with (-)-linalool (50-150 mg/kg) inhibited the development of acute hyperalgesia induced by carrageenan in the injected paw, with no effect on the contralateral paw. Furthermore, (-)-linalool at the highest dose used (200 mg/kg), reduced and reverted the decrease in paw withdrawal latencies induced by L-glutamate on the ipsilateral side, showing antihyperalgesic and antinociceptive effects. An antinociceptive effect was apparent also in the contralateral paw. Finally, (-)-linalool (200 mg/kg) increased paw withdrawal latency on the side contralateral to prostaglandin E(2) injection, but not on the side of the injection. The efficacy of (-)-linalool in decreasing the hyperalgesia induced by carrageenan, L-glutamate and prostaglandin E(2) suggests that this compound might be useful in pain conditions sustained by the development of neuronal sensitization.

Profile of spinal and supra-spinal antinociception of (-)-linalool.

We previously reported that administration of (-)-linalool, the naturally occurring enantiomer in essential oils, induced a significant reduction in carrageenin-induced oedema and in acetic acid-induced writhing. The latter effect was completely antagonised by the muscarinic receptor antagonist atropine and by the opioid receptor antagonist naloxone. To further characterise the antinociceptive profile of (-)-linalool, we studied its effect in the hot plate and the formalin in tests. In addition, to determine the possible involvement of the cholinergic, opioidergic and dopaminergic systems, we tested the effects of atropine, pirenzepine, a muscarinic M1 receptor antagonist, naloxone, sulpiride, a dopamine D2 receptor antagonist and (R)-(+)-7-chloro-8-hydroxy-3-methyl-1-phenyl-2,3,4,5-tetrahydro-1H-3-benzazepine (SCH-23390), a dopamine D1 receptor antagonist on (-)-linalool-induced antinociception. Moreover, since K(+) channels seem to play an important role in the mechanisms of pain modulation, we examined the effect of glibenclamide, an ATP-sensitive K(+) channel inhibitor on (-)-linalool-induced antinociception. The administration of (-)-linalool (100 and 150 mg/kg, s.c.) increased the reaction time in the hot-plate test. Moreover, (-)-linalool (50 and 100 mg/kg) produced a significant reduction in the early acute phase of the formalin model, but not in the late tonic phase. The highest dose (150 mg/kg) caused a significant antinociceptive effect on both phases. The antinociceptive effects of (-)-linalool were decreased by pre-treatment with atropine, naloxone, sulpiride and glibenclamide but not by pirenzepine and SCH-23390. These results are in agreement with the demonstrated pharmacological properties of linalool, mainly its cholinergic, local anaesthetic activity and its ability to block NMDA receptors. Furthermore, a key role seems to be played by K(+) channels, whose opening might be the consequence of a stimulation of muscarinic M2, opioid or dopamine D2 receptors.

Microgravity alters basal and insulin-mediated metabolic activity of normal and neoplastic cells.

In this paper we report the behaviour of normal vascular smooth muscle cells and transformed breast cancer cells under normal versus simulated microgravity conditions by comparing cell proliferation, Glucose transport, Methionine uptake and protein synthesis. Modeled microgravity profoundly affects cell growth (especially in normal cells) and Glucose or Methionine metabolism (although to different extent in the two cell lines). Since both cells own responsive insulin receptors, the comparison was extended to insulin-stimulated versus unstimulated conditions. We report that the detected metabolic changes were strongly enhanced when the cells were simultaneously stimulated with insulin and subjected to modeled microgravity stress. Such observations may have important returns for human health in space; they deserve further attention.

Creating conditions similar to those that occur during exposure of cells to microgravity induces apoptosis in human lymphocytes by 5-lipoxygenase-mediated mitochondrial uncoupling and cytochrome c release.

Creating conditions similar to those that occur during exposure of cells to microgravity induced a sixfold increase of apoptotic bodies and DNA fragments in human lymphocytes, paralleled by an early (within 2 h) fourfold increase in 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX) activity and a fivefold decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential and increase in cytochrome c release (within 4 and 8 h, respectively). Similar membrane potential and cytochrome c release were observed in isolated mitochondria treated with physiological amounts of 5-LOX and were enhanced by creating conditions similar to those that occur during exposure of cells to microgravity. 5-LOX inhibitors, 5,8,11,14-eicosatetraynoic acid and caffeic acid, completely prevented apoptosis, whereas the phospholipase A(2) inhibitor methyl-arachidonoyl fluorophosphonate and the 5-LOX activating protein inhibitor MK886 reduced it to 65-70%. The intracellular calcium chelator EGTA-acetoxymethylester reduced 5-LOX activity and apoptosis to 30-40% of controls, whereas the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase inhibitor SB203580 was ineffective. The caspase-3 and caspase-9 inhibitors Z-Asp(OCH(3))-Glu(OCH(3))-Val-Asp(OCH(3))-fluoromethylketone (FMK) and Z-Leu-Glu(OCH(3))-His-Asp(OCH(3))-FMK reduced apoptotic bodies to 25-30% of the control cells. Finally, creating conditions similar to those that occur during exposure of cells to microgravity did not induce apoptosis in human lymphoma U937 cells, which did not express an active 5-LOX.