Campylobacter jejuni Strains Associated with Wild Birds and Those Causing Human Disease in Six High-Use Recreational Waterways in New Zealand.

Campylobacter jejuni, a leading cause of gastroenteritis worldwide, has been frequently isolated from recreational rivers and streams in New Zealand, yet the public health significance of this is unknown. This study uses molecular tools to improve our understanding of the epidemiology and sources of Campylobacter in recreational waterways, with a view to preventing human infection. Epidemiological and microbiological data were collected between 2005 and 2009 from six high-use recreational waterways in the Manawatu-Wanganui region of the North Island. Campylobacter spp. and C. jejuni were isolated from 33.2% and 20.4% of 509 samples, respectively. Isolation of Campylobacter was observed in both low and high river flows. After adjusting for the confounding effects of river flow, there was a significantly higher likelihood of isolating Campylobacter in the winter month of June compared to January. A high diversity of C. jejuni multilocus sequence types was seen, with the most commonly isolated being the water rail-associated ST-2381 (19/91 isolates [20.9%]), ST-1225 (8/91 isolates [8.8%]), and ST-45 (6/91 isolates [6.6%]). The ST-2381 was found in all rivers, while the most commonly isolated ST from human cases in New Zealand, the poultry-associated strain ST-474, was isolated only in one river. Although the majority of Campylobacter sequence types identified in river water were strains associated with wild birds that are rarely associated with human disease, poultry and ruminant-associated Campylobacter strains that are found in human infection were also identified and could present a public health risk.IMPORTANCE In 2016, there was a large-scale waterborne outbreak of campylobacteriosis in New Zealand, which was estimated to have affected over 5,000 people. This highlighted the need for a greater understanding of the sources of contamination of both surface and groundwater and risks associated with exposure to both drinking and recreational water. This study reports the prevalence and population structure of Campylobacter jejuni in six recreational waters of the Manawatu-Wanganui region of New Zealand and models the relationship between Campylobacter spp. and ruminant-associated Campylobacter and the parameters "sites," "months," and "river flow." Here, we demonstrate that both low and high river flows, month of the year, and recreational sites could influence the Campylobacter isolation from recreational waters. The presence of genotypes associated with human infection allowed us to describe potential risks associated with recreational waters.

Infections with multiple Cryptosporidium species and new genetic variants in young dairy calves on a farm located within a drinking water catchment area in New Zealand.

Several Cryptosporidium species are known to infect cattle. However, the occurrence of mixed infections with more than one species and the impact of this phenomenon on animal and human health are poorly understood. Therefore, to detect the presence of mixed Cryptosporidium infections, 15 immunofluorescence-positive specimens obtained from 6-week-old calves' faeces (n=60) on one dairy farm were subjected to PCR-sequencing at multiple loci. DNA sequences of three Cryptosporidium species: C. parvum (15/15), C. bovis (3/15) and C. andersoni (1/15), and two new genetic variants were identified. There was evidence of mixed infections in five specimens. C. parvum, C. bovis and C. andersoni sequences were detected together in one specimen, C. parvum and C. bovis in two specimens, and C. parvum and C. parvum-like variants in the remaining two specimens. Sequencing of gp60 amplicons identified the IIaA19G4R1 (8/15) and IIaA18G3R1 (4/15) C. parvum subgenotypes. This study provides evidence of endemic mixed infections with the three main Cryptosporidium species of cattle and new genetic variants, in calves at the transition age of six weeks. The results add to the body of evidence describing Cryptosporidium isolates as genetically heterogeneous populations, and highlight the need for iterative genotyping to explore their genetic makeup.

Differences in the fecal concentrations and genetic diversities of Campylobacter jejuni populations among individual cows in two dairy herds.

Dairy cows have been identified as common carriers of Campylobacter jejuni, which causes many of the human gastroenteritis cases reported worldwide. To design on-farm management practices that control the human infection sourced from dairy cows, the first step is to acquire an understanding of the excretion patterns of the cow reservoir. We monitored the same 35 cows from two dairy farms for C. jejuni excretion fortnightly for up to 12 months. The objective was to examine the concentration of C. jejuni and assess the genetic relationship of the C. jejuni populations excreted by individual cows. Significant differences (P < 0.01) in C. jejuni fecal concentration were observed among the 35 cows, with median concentrations that varied by up to 3.6 log(10) · g(-1) feces. A total of 36 different genotypes were identified from the 514 positive samples by using enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus (ERIC)-PCR. Although 22 of these genotypes were excreted by more than one cow, the analysis of frequencies and distribution of the genotypes by model-based statistics revealed a high degree of individuality in the C. jejuni population in each cow. The observed variation in the frequency of excretion of a genotype among cows and the analysis by multilocus sequence typing (MLST) of these genotypes suggest that excretion of C. jejuni in high numbers is due to a successful adaptation of a particular genotype to a particular cow's gut environment, but that animal-related factors render some individual cows resistant to colonization by particular genotypes. The reasons for differences in C. jejuni colonization of animals warrant further investigation.