Non-glycosylated IGF2 prohormones are more mitogenic than native IGF2.

Insulin-like Growth Factor-2 (IGF2) is important for the regulation of human embryonic growth and development, and for adults' physiology. Incorrect processing of the IGF2 precursor, pro-IGF2(156), leads to the formation of two IGF2 proforms, big-IGF2(87) and big-IGF2(104). Unprocessed and mainly non-glycosylated IGF2 proforms are found at abnormally high levels in certain diseases, but their mode of action is still unclear. Here, we found that pro-IGF2(156) has the lowest ability to form its inactivating complexes with IGF-Binding Proteins and has higher proliferative properties in cells than IGF2 and other IGF prohormones. We also showed that big-IGF2(104) has a seven-fold higher binding affinity for the IGF2 receptor than IGF2, and that pro-IGF2(87) binds and activates specific receptors and stimulates cell growth similarly to the mature IGF2. The properties of these pro-IGF2 forms, especially of pro-IGF2(156) and big-IGF2(104), indicate them as hormones that may be associated with human diseases related to the accumulation of IGF-2 proforms in the circulation.

The efficiency of insulin production and its content in insulin-expressing model ß-cells correlate with their Zn2+ levels.

Insulin is produced and stored inside the pancreatic ß-cell secretory granules, where it is assumed to form Zn2+-stabilized oligomers. However, the actual storage forms of this hormone and the impact of zinc ions on insulin production in vivo are not known. Our initial X-ray fluorescence experiment on granules from native Langerhans islets and insulinoma-derived INS-1E cells revealed a considerable difference in the zinc content. This led our further investigation to evaluate the impact of the intra-granular Zn2+ levels on the production and storage of insulin in different model ß-cells. Here, we systematically compared zinc and insulin contents in the permanent INS-1E and BRIN-BD11 ß-cells and in the native rat pancreatic islets by flow cytometry, confocal microscopy, immunoblotting, specific messenger RNA (mRNA) and total insulin analysis. These studies revealed an impaired insulin production in the permanent ß-cell lines with the diminished intracellular zinc content. The drop in insulin and Zn2+ levels was paralleled by a lower expression of ZnT8 zinc transporter mRNA and hampered proinsulin processing/folding in both permanent cell lines. To summarize, we showed that the disruption of zinc homeostasis in the model ß-cells correlated with their impaired insulin and ZnT8 production. This indicates a need for in-depth fundamental research about the role of zinc in insulin production and storage.

A radioligand binding assay for the insulin-like growth factor 2 receptor.

Insulin-like growth factors 2 and 1 (IGF2 and IGF1) and insulin are closely related hormones that are responsible for the regulation of metabolic homeostasis, development and growth of the organism. Physiological functions of insulin and IGF1 are relatively well-studied, but information about the role of IGF2 in the body is still sparse. Recent discoveries called attention to emerging functions of IGF2 in the brain, where it could be involved in processes of learning and memory consolidation. It was also proposed that these functions could be mediated by the receptor for IGF2 (IGF2R). Nevertheless, little is known about the mechanism of signal transduction through this receptor. Here we produced His-tagged domain 11 (D11), an IGF2-binding element of IGF2R; we immobilized it on the solid support through a well-defined sandwich, consisting of neutravidin, biotin and synthetic anti-His-tag antibodies. Next, we prepared specifically radiolabeled [125I]-monoiodotyrosyl-Tyr2-IGF2 and optimized a sensitive and robust competitive radioligand binding assay for determination of the nanomolar binding affinities of hormones for D11 of IGF2. The assay will be helpful for the characterization of new IGF2 mutants to study the functions of IGF2R and the development of new compounds for the treatment of neurological disorders.

Mutations at hypothetical binding site 2 in insulin and insulin-like growth factors 1 and 2 result in receptor- and hormone-specific responses.

Information on how insulin and insulin-like growth factors 1 and 2 (IGF-1 and -2) activate insulin receptors (IR-A and -B) and the IGF-1 receptor (IGF-1R) is crucial for understanding the difference in the biological activities of these peptide hormones. Cryo-EM studies have revealed that insulin uses its binding sites 1 and 2 to interact with IR-A and have identified several critical residues in binding site 2. However, mutagenesis studies suggest that Ile-A10, Ser-A12, Leu-A13, and Glu-A17 also belong to insulin's site 2. Here, to resolve this discrepancy, we mutated these insulin residues and the equivalent residues in IGFs. Our findings revealed that equivalent mutations in the hormones can result in differential biological effects and that these effects can be receptor-specific. We noted that the insulin positions A10 and A17 are important for its binding to IR-A and IR-B and IGF-1R and that A13 is important only for IR-A and IR-B binding. The IGF-1/IGF-2 positions 51/50 and 54/53 did not appear to play critical roles in receptor binding, but mutations at IGF-1 position 58 and IGF-2 position 57 affected the binding. We propose that IGF-1 Glu-58 interacts with IGF-1R Arg-704 and belongs to IGF-1 site 1, a finding supported by the NMR structure of the less active Asp-58-IGF-1 variant. Computational analyses indicated that the aforementioned mutations can affect internal insulin dynamics and inhibit adoption of a receptor-bound conformation, important for binding to receptor site 1. We provide a molecular model and alternative hypotheses for how the mutated insulin residues affect activity.

Converting Insulin-like Growth Factors 1 and 2 into High-Affinity Ligands for Insulin Receptor Isoform A by the Introduction of an Evolutionarily Divergent Mutation.

Insulin-like growth factors 1 and 2 (IGF-1 and -2, respectively) are protein hormones involved not only in normal growth and development but also in life span regulation and cancer. They exert their functions mainly through the IGF-1R or by binding to isoform A of the insulin receptor (IR-A). The development of IGF-1 and IGF-2 antagonists is of great clinical interest. Mutations of A4 and A8 sites of human insulin lead to disproportionate effects on hormone IR binding and activation. Here, we systematically modified IGF-1 sites 45, 46, and 49 and IGF-2 sites 45 and 48, which correspond, or are close, to insulin sites A4 and A8. The IGF-1R and IR-A binding and autophosphorylation potencies of these analogues were characterized. They retained the main IGF-1R-related properties, but the hormones with His49 in IGF-1 and His48 in IGF-2 showed significantly higher affinities for IR-A and for IR-B, being the strongest IGF-1- and IGF-2-like binders of these receptors ever reported. All analogues activated IR-A and IGF-1R without major discrepancies in their binding affinities. This study revealed that IR-A and IGF-1R contain specific sites, likely parts of their so-called sites 2', which can interact differently with specifically modified IGF analogues. Moreover, a clear importance of IGF-2 site 44 for effective hormone folding was also observed. These findings may facilitate novel and rational engineering of new hormone analogues for IR-A and IGF-1R studies and for potential medical applications.