The efficacy of hazard perception training and education: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Hazard perception (HP) has been argued to improve with experience, with numerous training programs having been developed in an attempt to fast track the development of this critical safety skill. To date, there has been little synthesis of these methods. OBJECTIVE: The present study sought to synthesise the literature for all road users to capture the breadth of methodologies and intervention types, and quantify their efficacy. DATA SOURCES: A systematic review of both peer reviewed and non-peer-reviewed literature was completed. A total of 57 papers were found to have met inclusion criteria. RESULTS: Research into hazard perception has focused primarily on drivers (with 42 studies), with a limited number of studies focusing on vulnerable road users, including motorcyclists (3 studies), cyclists (7 studies) and pedestrians (5 studies). Training was found to have a large significant effect on improving hazard perception skills for drivers (g = 0.78) and cyclists (g = 0.97), a moderate effect for pedestrians (g = 0.64) and small effect for motorcyclists (g = 0.42). There was considerable heterogeneity in the findings, with the efficacy of training varying as a function of the hazard perception skill being measured, the type of training enacted (active, passive or combined) and the number of sessions of training (single or multiple). Active training and single sessions were found to yield more consistent significant improvements in hazard perception. CONCLUSIONS: This study found that HP training improved HP skill across all road user groups with generally moderate to large effects identified. HP training should employ a training method that actively engages the participants in the training task. Preliminary results suggest that a single session of training may be sufficient to improve HP skill however more research is needed into the delivery of these single sessions and long-term retention. Further research is also required to determine whether improvements in early-stage skills translate to improvements in responses on the road, and the long-term retention of the skills developed through training.

Road user hazard perception tests: A systematic review of current methodologies.

BACKGROUND: Poor hazard perception, or the ability to anticipate potentially dangerous road and traffic situations, has been linked to an increased crash risk. Novice and younger road users are typically poorer at hazard perception than experienced and older road users. Road traffic authorities have recognised the importance of hazard perception skills, with the inclusion of a hazard perception test in most Graduated Driver Licensing (GDL) systems. OBJECTIVES: This review synthesises studies of hazard perception tests in order to determine best practice methodologies that discriminate between novice/younger and experienced/older road users. DATA SOURCES: Published studies available on PsychInfo, Scopus and Medline as at April 2018 were included in the review. Studies included a hazard perception test methodology and compared non-clinical populations of road users (car drivers, motorcyclists, bicyclists and pedestrians), based on age and experience, or compared methodologies. RESULTS: 49 studies met the inclusion criteria. There was a high degree of heterogeneity in the studies. However all methodologies - video, static image, simulator and real-world test-drive were able to discriminate road user groups categorised by age and/or experience, on at least one measure of hazard perception. CONCLUSIONS: Whilst there was a high level of heterogeneity of studies, video methodology utilising temporal responses (e.g. press a button when detecting the potential hazard) are a consistent measure of hazard perception across road user groups, whereas spatial measures (e.g. locate potential hazard in the scenario) were inconsistent. Staged footage was found to discriminate as well as unstaged footage, with static images also adding valuable information on hazard perception. There were considerable inconsistencies in the categorising of participants based on age and experience, limited application of theoretical frameworks, and a considerable lack of detail regarding post hoc amendments of hazardous scenarios. This research can guide further developments in hazard perception testing that may improve driver licensing and outcomes for road users.

The effects of training impulse control on simulated driving.

There is growing interest in young driver training that addresses age-related factors, including incompletely developed impulse control. Two studies investigated whether training of response inhibition can reduce risky simulated driving in young drivers (aged 16-24 years). Each study manipulated aspects of response inhibition training then assessed transfer of training using simulated driving measures including speeding, risky passing, and compliance with traffic controls. Study 1 (n = 65) used a Go/No-go task, Stop Signal Task and a Collision Detection Task. Designed to promote engagement, learning, and transfer, training tasks were driving-relevant and adaptive (i.e. difficulty increased as performance improved), included performance feedback, and were distributed over five days. Control participants completed matching "filler" tasks. Performance on trained tasks improved with training, but there was no significant improvement in simulated driving. Study 2 enhanced response inhibition training using Go/No-go and SST tasks, with clearer performance feedback, and 10 days of training. Control participants completed testing only, in order to avoid any possibility of training response inhibition in the filler tasks. Again performance on trained tasks improved, but there was no evidence of transfer of training to simulated driving. These findings suggest that although training of sufficient interest and duration can improve response inhibition task performance, a training schedule that is likely to be acceptable to the public does not result in improvements in simulated driving. Further research is needed to investigate whether response inhibition training can improve risky driving in the context of real-world motivations for risky driving.

An examination of the relationship between measures of impulsivity and risky simulated driving amongst young drivers.

The risky driving of young drivers may owe in part to youthful motivations (such as experience-seeking, authority rebellion, desire for peer approval) combined with incompletely developed impulse control. Although self-reported impulsiveness has been positively associated with self-reports of risky driving, results based on objective measures of response inhibition (e.g., Go/No-go tasks) have been inconclusive. The present study examined interrelationships between measures of response inhibition, self-report impulsiveness scales, and responses to events during a simulated drive that were designed to detect impulsive, unsafe behaviours (e.g., turning across on-coming traffic). Participants were 72 first-year Psychology students. More speeding and "Unsafe" responding to critical events during simulated driving were associated with poorer impulse control as assessed by commission errors during a Go/No-Go task. These results consolidate evidence for a relationship between impulse control and risky driving amongst young drivers.

Impairment of a speed management strategy in young drivers under high cognitive workload.

BACKGROUND: A training method known as Episodic training has shown promise in reducing speeding behavior in young drivers (Prabhakharan and Molesworth, 2011). The present study aimed to investigate how cognitive resources are utilized to implement this behavioral change. METHOD: 60 participants were randomly divided into four groups and completed a simulated training drive in Week 1 followed by a 10km simulated test drive in Week 2. As part of the test drive, two groups were asked to complete a secondary task (mental arithmetic task) in addition to the test drive. RESULTS: The results indicated that implementing a speed management strategy elicited by Episodic training was successful in isolation, but came at a cognitive trade-off when performed in conjunction with a secondary task. CONCLUSION: From an applied perspective, these results suggest driver training programmes should compartmentalize driver training in order to reduce the cognitive load experienced by trainee drivers, and hence facilitate in driver skill acquisition.

Repairing faulty scripts to reduce speeding behaviour in young drivers.

BACKGROUND: Young drivers under the age of 25 throughout the world continue to be over-represented in motor vehicle accidents (WHO, 2007). A contributing factor to a large number of these motor vehicle accidents is speeding. Reducing drivers' tendency to speed remains a challenge. In aviation, one method that has yielded positive results in terms of improving pilots' risk management behaviour involves engaging pilots cognitively in the task (Molesworth et al., 2006). This type of training is hypothesized to repair faulty cognitive structures known as scripts. Therefore, the main aim of the present research was to examine the utility of a training program where drivers are actively engaged following a driving episode by giving them personalised feedback in order to reduce their tendency to speed. METHOD: 58 young (16-24 years) motorists were divided into four groups. All participants completed both a 'training' session followed by a test session one week apart. Training consisted of either, reading three accident cases involving speeding, cases with rules associated with the offence, a simulated drive with personalised post-drive feedback regarding speeding and its legal ramifications or a card sorting task (control). The main dependent variables were percentage of distance speeding and frequency of zone violations during the simulated drive in the test session. RESULTS: A series of planned contrast analysis with family-wise error corrected at .017 revealed that receiving personalised feedback regarding speeding behaviour following a simulated drive significantly reduced speeding tendency in the test session, when compared to control. Reading case examples alone, or coupled with rules, appeared to have no impact on speeding behaviour, compared to control. CONCLUSION: The results suggest that training programs that actively engage individuals about a driving episode by providing them with personalised feedback may be effective in curbing young drivers' speeding behaviour. These results are discussed from a theoretical and applied perspective.