Access to and Health Outcomes of Pediatric Solid Organ Transplantation for Indigenous Children in 4 Settler-colonial Countries: A Scoping Review.

Solid organ transplantation (SOT) is considered the optimal treatment for children with end-stage organ failure; however, increased efforts are needed to understand the gap surrounding equitable access to and health outcomes of SOT for Indigenous children. This scoping review summarizes the literature on the characteristics of access to and health outcomes of pediatric SOT among Indigenous children in the settler-colonial states of Canada, Aotearoa New Zealand, Australia, and the United States. A search was performed on MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO, and CINAHL for studies matching preestablished eligibility criteria from inception to November 2021. A preliminary gray literature search was also conducted. Twenty-four studies published between 1996 and 2021 were included. Studies addressed Indigenous pediatric populations within the United States (n = 7), Canada (n = 6), Aotearoa New Zealand (n = 5), Australia (n = 5), and Aotearoa New Zealand and Australia combined (n = 1). Findings showed that Indigenous children experienced longer time on dialysis, lower rates of preemptive and living donor kidney transplantation, and disparities in patient and graft outcomes after kidney transplantation. There were mixed findings about access to liver transplantation for Indigenous children and comparable findings for graft and patient outcomes after liver transplantation. Social determinants of health, such as geographic remoteness, lack of living donors, and traditional spiritual beliefs, may affect SOT access and outcomes for Indigenous children. Evidence gaps emphasize the need for action-based initiatives within SOT that prioritize research with and for Indigenous pediatric populations. Future research should include community-engaged methodologies, situated within local community contexts, to inform culturally safe care for Indigenous children.

Longitudinal associations between socioeconomic position and overall health of children with chronic kidney disease and their carers.

BACKGROUND: Disadvantaged socioeconomic position (SEP) is an important predictor of poor health in children with chronic kidney disease (CKD). The time course over which SEP influences the health of children with CKD and their carers is unknown. METHODS: This prospective longitudinal study included 377 children, aged 6-18 years with CKD (stages I-V, dialysis, and transplant), and their primary carers. Mixed effects ordinal regression was performed to assess the association between SEP and carer-rated child health and carer self-rated health over a 4-year follow-up. RESULTS: Adjusted for CKD stage, higher family household income (adjusted odds ratio (OR) (95% CI) 3.3, 1.8-6.0), employed status of primary carers (1.7, 0.9-3.0), higher carer-perceived financial status (2.6, 1.4-4.8), and carer home ownership (2.2, 1.2-4.0) were associated with better carer-rated child health. Household income also had a differential effect on the carer's self-rated health over time (p = 0.005). The predicted probabilities for carers' overall health being 'very good' among lower income groups at 0, 2, and 4 years were 0.43 (0.28-0.60), 0.34 (0.20-0.51), and 0.25 (0.12-0.44), respectively, and 0.81 (0.69-0.88), 0.84 (0.74-0.91), and 0.88 (0.76-0.94) for carers within the higher income group. CONCLUSIONS: Carers and their children with CKD in higher SEP report better overall child and carer health compared with those in lower SEP. Carers of children with CKD in low-income households had poorer self-rated health compared with carers in higher-income households at baseline, and this worsened over time. These cumulative effects may contribute to health inequities between higher and lower SEP groups over time. Graphical abstract A higher resolution version of the Graphical abstract is available as Supplementary information.

School attendance and sport participation amongst children with chronic kidney disease: a cross-sectional analysis from the Kids with CKD (KCAD) study.

BACKGROUND: School attendance and life participation, particularly sport, is a high priority for children with chronic kidney disease (CKD). This study is aimed at assessing the association between CKD stage, sports participation, and school absences in children with CKD. METHODS: Using data from the binational Kids with CKD study (ages 6-18 years, n = 377), we performed multivariable regression to evaluate the association between CKD stage, school absences, and sports participation. RESULTS: Overall, 62% of participants played sport with the most frequent sport activities engaged in being swimming (17%) and soccer (17%). Compared to children with CKD 1-2, the incidence rate ratios (IRR) (95% CI) for sports participation amongst children with CKD 3-5, dialysis, or transplant were 0.84 (0.64-1.09), 0.59 (0.39-0.90), and 0.75 (0.58-0.96), respectively. The median (IQR) days of school absences within a four-week period were 1 day (0-1), with children on dialysis reporting the highest number of school absences (9 days (5-15)), followed by transplant recipients (2 days (1-7)), children with CKD 3-5 (1 day (0-3)), and with CKD 1-2 (1 day (0-3)). Duration of CKD modified the association between CKD stage and school absences, with children with a transplant experiencing a higher number of missed school days with increasing duration of CKD, but not in children with CKD 1-5 or on dialysis (p-interaction < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Children receiving dialysis and with a kidney transplant had greater school absences and played fewer sports compared to children with CKD stages 1-2. Innovative strategies to improve school attendance and sport participation are needed to improve life participation of children with CKD.

Biomarkers of histologic severity in children with severe or atypical acute post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis.

BACKGROUND: Acute post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis (APSGN) is a common cause of acute kidney injury (AKI) in children; however, in a small subgroup, the presentation is one of rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis (RPGN) deteriorating kidney function associated with severe oligo-anuria or a mixed nephritic-nephrotic picture. This study reviewed potential clinical and laboratory factors which may assist the treating clinician to identify patients at high risk of severe disease. METHODS: All kidney biopsies for APSGN performed between 1996 and 2020 were obtained from a departmental biopsy database. Clinical and laboratory data were extracted from the patients' clinical records. Kidney biopsies were reviewed and scored independently by a renal histopathologist. RESULTS: Thirty of 53 (56.6%) patients had stage 3 AKI at initial presentation with a median estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) 27 (IQR 11-41), falling to 20 ml/min/1.73 m2 (IQR 13.3-43) at time of biopsy. Patients who had either a pre-biopsy eGFR < 35 ml/min/1.73 m2 or a ≥ 25% fall in eGFR between admission and biopsy were more likely to have glomerular crescents (p = 0.004). Multivariate regression analysis and receiver operating curve showed the pre-biopsy eGFR most accurately predicted glomerular crescents (p = 0.047, ROC 0.757). There were no significant predictors of nephrotic proteinuria or nephrotic syndrome during the acute phase. CONCLUSIONS: Severe APSGN is associated with a pronounced reduction in eGFR. Calculation of eGFR in this small group of patients may assist in identifying which patient should have an urgent kidney biopsy to facilitate a more accurate clinical diagnosis and management plan.

A multicenter retrospective study of calcineurin inhibitors in nephrotic syndrome secondary to podocyte gene variants.

While 44-83% of children with steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome (SRNS) without a proven genetic cause respond to treatment with a calcineurin inhibitor (CNI), current guidelines recommend against the use of immunosuppression in monogenic SRNS. This is despite existing evidence suggesting that remission with CNI treatment is possible and can improve prognosis in some cases of monogenic SRNS. Herein, our retrospective study assessed response frequency, predictors of response and kidney function outcomes among children with monogenic SRNS treated with a CNI for at least three months. Data from 203 cases (age 0-18 years) were collected from 37 pediatric nephrology centers. Variant pathogenicity was reviewed by a geneticist, and 122 patients with a pathogenic and 19 with a possible pathogenic genotype were included in the analysis. After six months of treatment and at last visit, 27.6% and 22.5% of all patients respectively, demonstrated partial or full response. Achievement of at least partial response at six months of treatment conferred a significant reduction in kidney failure risk at last follow-up compared to no response (hazard ratio [95% confidence interval] 0.25, [0.10-0.62]). Moreover, risk of kidney failure was significantly lower when only those with a follow-up longer than two years were considered (hazard ratio 0.35, [0.14-0.91]). Higher serum albumin level at CNI initiation was the only factor related to increased likelihood of significant remission at six months (odds ratio [95% confidence interval] 1.16, [1.08-1.24]). Thus, our findings justify a treatment trial with a CNI also in children with monogenic SRNS.

Diarrhoea-associated haemolytic uraemic syndrome and Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli infections in New Zealand children: Clinical features and short-term complications from a 23-year cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Diarrhoea-associated haemolytic uraemic syndrome (D+HUS) is an important cause of acute kidney injury (AKI) in young children and it is most commonly associated with Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC). Gastrointestinal infections caused by STEC have been increasing in New Zealand over the past two decades, but little is known regarding the acute and short-term outcomes of New Zealand children who develop D+HUS. AIM: To describe the clinical characteristics, complications and short-term outcomes of New Zealand children with D+HUS identified between 1 January 1998 and 31 December 2020. METHODS: The New Zealand Paediatric Surveillance Unit sends out a monthly survey to all practising paediatricians regarding conditions under active surveillance. Paediatricians caring for a child aged 0-15 years of age with D+HUS over the prior month were requested to report their patient. Reporting clinicians were then contacted by the principal investigator and sent a questionnaire requesting patient clinical and laboratory information. RESULTS: Two hundred and twenty-six children had D+HUS; median age 2.8 years (interquartile range 1.7-4.9). Acute dialysis was required in 128/226 (56.2%) of children for a median of 9 days (range 1-38). Children with shorter diarrhoeal prodrome, higher neutrophil count and haemoglobin had a longer duration of dialysis. Seizures occurred in 31/226 (13.7%) and were not associated with a greater HUS severity score. Acute mortality was 1.3%, all resulting from thrombotic microangiopathic cerebral injury. CONCLUSION: D+HUS is a major cause of AKI in previously healthy young children. Earlier recognition of STEC infections in young children may reduce the need for dialysis and other extra-renal complications. The New Zealand incidence of acute dialysis, other major complications and mortality are consistent with other reported studies.

Longitudinal assessment of the health-related quality of life of children and adolescents with chronic kidney disease.

In this multi-center longitudinal cohort study conducted in Australia and New Zealand, we assessed the trajectories of health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in children with chronic kidney disease (CKD) over time. A total of 377 children (aged 6-18 years) with CKD stages 1-5 (pre-dialysis), dialysis, or transplant, were followed biennially for four years. Multi Attribute Utility (MAU) scores of HRQoL were measured at baseline and at two and four years using the McMaster Health Utilities Index Mark 3 tool, a generic multi-attribute, preference-based system. A multivariable linear mixed model was used to assess the trajectories of HRQoL over time in 199 children with CKD stage 1-5, 43 children receiving dialysis and 135 kidney transplant recipients. An interaction between CKD stage at baseline and follow-up time indicated that the slopes of the HRQoL scores differed between children by CKD stage at inception. Over half of the cohort on dialysis at baseline had received a kidney transplant by the end of year four and the MAU scores of these children increased by a meaningful amount averaging 0.05 (95% confidence interval 0.01 to 0.09) per year in comparison to those who were transplant recipients at baseline. The mean difference between baseline and year two MAU scores was 0.09 (95% confidence interval -0.05, 0.23), (Cohen's d effect size 0.31). Thus, improvement in HRQoL over time of children on dialysis at baseline was likely to have been driven by their transition from dialysis to transplantation. Additionally, children with CKD stage 1-5 and transplant recipients at baseline had no changes in their disease stage or treatment modality and experienced stable HRQoL over time.

Bronchiectasis in children following kidney transplantation in New Zealand.

AIM: Bronchiectasis is an acquired chronic respiratory condition with a relatively high incidence in New Zealand children. Bronchiectasis following kidney transplant has been reported internationally. This study aimed to identify the incidence rate of bronchiectasis following paediatric kidney transplantation. Secondary aims were to assess the impact on kidney allograft function and identify risk factors that might prompt earlier diagnosis. METHODS: Case control study of children who developed bronchiectasis following kidney transplant in New Zealand. All children who were transplanted during the 16-year period from 2001 to 2016 were included. Each identified case was matched with two controls (children who did not develop bronchiectasis and received a kidney transplant within the closest time period to their matched case). Data were collected on baseline demographics, clinical variables, immunosuppression and allograft function. RESULTS: Of 95 children who had a kidney transplant during the specified time period, eight (8.4%) developed bronchiectasis at a median of 4 years post-transplant. The mean incidence rate of bronchiectasis was 526 cases per 100 000 paediatric kidney transplant population per year. The majority of children were Maori or Pasifika ethnicity and lived in areas of greater socio-economic deprivation. Immunosuppression burden and allograft function were not significantly different between groups. CONCLUSIONS: The incidence rate of bronchiectasis following paediatric kidney transplantation is substantially higher than the baseline paediatric incidence rate in New Zealand. A high index of suspicion for bronchiectasis and prompt investigation of children post kidney transplantation with a history of recurrent lower respiratory tract infection or chronic cough are advised.

Determinants of acute kidney injury in children with new onset type 1 diabetes: A cohort study of children aged <15 years: Auckland, New Zealand (2006-2016).

OBJECTIVE: Acute kidney injury (AKI) may contribute to the risk of diabetic kidney disease, however, there have been limited studies of the incidence of AKI in well-defined populations of children with type 1 diabetes. The aim was to quantify AKI in children presenting with new onset type 1 diabetes from the regional paediatric diabetes service, Auckland, New Zealand. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A retrospective analysis of a prospectively identified cohort study of children and adolescents presenting from 2006 to 2016 with type 1 diabetes aged <15 years. AKI was defined using Kidney Disease/Improving Global Outcomes serum creatinine criteria. RESULTS: There were 586 subjects: 52% male, with mean (SD) age 8.9 (3.8) years, with 151(25.8%) in diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA). AKI was present in 47%, 278/586, AKI was increased in those with DKA (125/151 (83%) DKA vs. 153/435 (35%) no-DKA). Univariable analysis showed that increased HbA1c, higher glucose levels, lower BMI SDS, lower bicarbonate and pH levels were all associated with AKI (p < .001). In multivariable analysis, AKI was associated with DKA and higher glucose levels independently. The majority of cases were stage 1 (203/278 [73%]), or stage 2 AKI 62/278 (22%). 13/278 (5%) had severe, Stage 3 AKI, and all presented in DKA (13/151 (8%) vs. 0/435 (0%) without DKA, p < .001). CONCLUSION: In this regional paediatric, cohort AKI is a common complication of children presenting with new onset type 1 diabetes. AKI is independently associated with higher glucose levels and DKA, and all cases of Stage 3 AKI were associated with DKA.

Cognitive and academic outcomes in children with chronic kidney disease.

BACKGROUND: Few data exist on the cognitive and academic functioning of children with chronic kidney disease (CKD) over the trajectory of their illness. We aimed to determine the association between CKD stages and cognitive and academic performance in children over time. METHODS: We included 53 participants (aged 6-18 years) with CKD stages 1-5 (n = 37), on dialysis (n = 3), or with functioning kidney transplant (n = 22) from three units in Australia from 2015 to 2019. Participants undertook a series of psychometric tests and were invited for repeated assessments annually. We used linear regression and linear mixed models to investigate the effect of CKD stage, adjusted for socioeconomic status. RESULTS: At baseline, full-scale intelligence quotient (FSIQ) (95%CI) of children on kidney replacement therapy (KRT) was in the low average range (87: 78, 96) and average (101: 95, 108) for children with CKD 1-5. Mean (95%CI) FSIQ, word reading, numerical operations, and spelling scores for children on KRT were 14.3 (- 25.3, - 3.3), 11 (- 18.5, - 3.6), 8.5 (- 17.6, 0.76), and 10 (- 18.6, - 1.3) points lower than children with CKD Stages 1-5. Spelling and numerical operations scores declined by 0.7 (- 1.4, - 0.1) and 1.0 (- 2.0, 0.2) units per year increase in age, regardless of CKD stage. CONCLUSIONS: Children treated with KRT have low average cognitive abilities and lower academic performance for numeracy and literacy compared to both children with CKD 1-5 and to the general population. However, the rate of decline in academic performance over time is similar for children across the full spectrum of CKD. A higher resolution version of the Graphical abstract is available as Supplementary information.

Association between socioeconomic status and academic performance in children and adolescents with chronic kidney disease.

BACKGROUND: Lower socioeconomic status (SES) is associated with lower academic achievement; however, this relationship is understudied in children with chronic kidney disease (CKD). This study examined the relationship between SES and academic performance in children and adolescents with CKD. METHODS: A total of 377 participants aged 6-18 years with CKD stages 1-5 (n = 199), on dialysis (n = 43) or with a kidney transplant (n = 135) were recruited. Five SES measures and a composite SES index were examined for associations with parent-rated average or above average academic performance in numeracy and literacy using multivariable logistic regression. RESULTS: Participants' median age was 12.6 years (IQR 8.9-15.5). Adjusted odds ratios (aOR) (95%CI) for better performance in numeracy and literacy, respectively, were 0.71 (0.44-1.15) and 0.75 (0.45-1.23) for children whose caregivers had lower educational attainment; 0.46 (0.26-0.80) and 0.53 (0.30-0.93) for lower household income; 0.52 (0.32-0.85) and 0.44 (0.26-0.73) for caregivers who were unemployed; 0.68 (0.41-1.12) and 0.59 (0.35-1.00) for caregivers with poor self-rated financial status; and 0.93 (0.53-1.64) and 1.00 (0.56-1.79) for caregivers who did not own their own home. Compared with the highest SES index quartile, the aORs for better performance by SES quartile in descending order were 1.24 (0.60-2.54), 0.76 (0.37-1.58), and 0.39 (0.18-0.86) for numeracy and 0.88 (0.41-1.85), 0.77 (0.35-1.66), and 0.32 (0.14-0.72) for literacy. No interactions were identified between SES and CKD stage, child age, or gender. CONCLUSIONS: Across all CKD stages, children from lower SES families are less likely to perform well in literacy and numeracy than those from higher SES households. A higher resolution version of the Graphical abstract is available as Supplementary information.

Impact of initial steroid response on transplant outcomes in children with steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Limited data suggest children with secondary steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome (secondary SRNS) have increased risk of recurrence post transplantation. There are no data on the association between secondary steroid resistance and risk of transplant loss. METHODS: Children who received kidney transplantation between 2000 and 2019 for either primary or secondary SRNS in Australia and New Zealand were included. Children presenting with nephrotic syndrome before 12 months were excluded. Data were gathered from chart reviews and ANZDATA. Transplant survival was estimated using the Kaplan-Meier estimator with Cox modelling used to explore predictors of survival. RESULTS: There were seventy children, 38 (55%) male, median age at presentation 4 years (IQR 2-7) and 46 (66%) Caucasian. Median age at transplant was 11 years (IQR 7-15) and 39 (55%) received living donor transplant. Secondary SRNS occurred in 20/70 (29%). For those with secondary SRNS, 18/20 (90%) had recurrence post-transplant, compared to 18/50 (36%) with primary SRNS (p = 0.001). Every child with history of atopy (n = 11) or with hypoalbuminaemia at time of transplant (n = 13) experienced immediate recurrence. For children with secondary SRNS, 8/18 (44%) with post-transplant recurrence had no response to therapy. For children with primary SRNS, 4/18 (22%) with recurrence had no response to therapy (p = 0.3). Overall, 10-year transplant survival was 47% (95%CI 29-77%) for those with secondary SRNS, compared to 71 (95%CI 57-88%) for those with primary SRNS (p = 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Secondary steroid resistance is strongly associated with SRNS recurrence. Atopy and hypoalbuminaemia at transplant may be novel risk factors for recurrence. Further research is needed to assess if secondary steroid resistance is associated with poorer transplant outcomes. "A higher resolution version of the Graphical abstract is available as Supplementary information".

Improve in-depth immunological risk assessment to optimize genetic-compatibility and clinical outcomes in child and adolescent recipients of parental donor kidney transplants: protocol for the INCEPTION study.

BACKGROUND: Parental donor kidney transplantation is the most common treatment option for children and adolescents with kidney failure. Emerging data from observational studies have reported improved short- and medium-term allograft outcomes in recipients of paternal compared to maternal donors. The INCEPTION study aims to identify potential differences in immunological compatibility between maternal and paternal donor kidneys and ascertain how this affects kidney allograft outcomes in children and adolescents with kidney failure. METHODS: This longitudinal observational study will recruit kidney transplant recipients aged ≤18 years who have received a parental donor kidney transplant across 4 countries (Australia, New Zealand, United Kingdom and the Netherlands) between 1990 and 2020. High resolution human leukocyte antigen (HLA) typing of both recipients and corresponding parental donors will be undertaken, to provide an in-depth assessment of immunological compatibility. The primary outcome is a composite of de novo donor-specific anti-HLA antibody (DSA), biopsy-proven acute rejection or allograft loss up to 60-months post-transplantation. Secondary outcomes are de novo DSA, biopsy-proven acute rejection, acute or chronic antibody mediated rejection or Chronic Allograft Damage Index (CADI) score of > 1 on allograft biopsy post-transplant, allograft function, proteinuria and allograft loss. Using principal component analysis and Cox proportional hazards regression modelling, we will determine the associations between defined sets of immunological and clinical parameters that may identify risk stratification for the primary and secondary outcome measures among young people accepting a parental donor kidney for transplantation. This study design will allow us to specifically investigate the relative importance of accepting a maternal compared to paternal donor, for families deciding on the best option for donation. DISCUSSION: The INCEPTION study findings will explore potentially differential immunological risks of maternal and paternal donor kidneys for transplantation among children and adolescents. Our study will provide the evidence base underpinning the selection of parental donor in order to achieve the best projected long-term kidney transplant and overall health outcomes for children and adolescents, a recognized vulnerable population. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The INCEPTION study has been registered with the Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry, with the trial registration number of ACTRN12620000911998 (14th September 2020).

Barriers to pre-emptive kidney transplantation in New Zealand children.

AIM: Pre-emptive kidney transplantation (PKT) is generally considered the optimal treatment for kidney failure as it minimises dialysis-associated morbidity and mortality and is associated with improved allograft survival. This study aimed to determine rates of paediatric PKT in New Zealand, identify barriers to PKT and consider potential interventions to influence future rates of pre-emptive transplantation. METHODS: Children commencing kidney replacement therapy between 2005 and 2017 in New Zealand were included. Descriptive analysis considered those referred late (referral <3 months prior to kidney replacement therapy initiation) or early based on referral timing to paediatric nephrology. Additional analysis compared characteristics of children receiving dialysis versus pre-emptive transplant as their first mode of kidney replacement therapy. RESULTS: PKT occurred in 15 of 90 children (17%). One-third of all patients were referred late. No late referrals received a pre-emptive transplant. Pre-emptively transplanted children were referred younger (median age 0.49 years), lived in less deprived areas, were more likely to have congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract and none were Maori or Pasifika ethnicity. CONCLUSIONS: Late referral, higher deprivation levels and Maori and Pasifika ethnicity confer a greater risk of not receiving pre-emptive transplantation. Improved education amongst health professionals about recognition of paediatric chronic kidney disease and the importance of timely referral to paediatric nephrology is recommended to reduce rates of late referral. A modified approach including enhanced culturally appropriate support for those diagnosed with chronic kidney disease during transplant evaluation should be pursued to improve equity.

Survival and transplant outcomes among young children requiring kidney replacement therapy.

BACKGROUND: Young children starting kidney replacement therapy (KRT) suffer high disease burden with unique impacts on growth and development, timing of transplantation and long-term survival. Contemporary long-term outcome data and how these relate to patient characteristics are necessary for shared decision-making with families, to identify modifiable risk factors and inform future research. METHODS: We examined outcomes of all children ≤ 5 years enrolled in the Australia and New Zealand Dialysis and Transplant Registry, commencing KRT 1980-2017. Primary outcomes were patient and graft survival. Final height attained was also examined. We used generalized additive modelling to investigate the relationship between age and graft loss over time post-transplant. RESULTS: In total, 388 children were included, of whom 322 (83%) received a kidney transplant. Cumulative 1-, 5- and 10-year patient survival probabilities were 93%, 86% and 83%, respectively. Death censored graft survival at 1, 5 and 10 years was 93%, 87% and 77%, respectively. Most children were at least 10 kg at transplantation (n = 302; 96%). A non-linear relationship between age at transplantation and graft loss was observed, dependent on time post-transplant, with increased risk of graft loss among youngest recipients both initially following transplantation and subsequently during adolescence. Graft and patient survival have improved in recent era. CONCLUSIONS: Young children commencing KRT have good long-term survival and graft outcomes. Early graft loss is no reason to postpone transplantation beyond 10 kg, and among even the youngest recipients, late graft loss risk in adolescence remains one of the greatest barriers to improving long-term outcomes.

Allograft outcome following repeat transplantation of patients with non-adherence-related first kidney allograft failure: a population cohort study.

Nonadherence is an important risk factor for premature allograft failure after kidney transplantation, but outcomes after re-transplantation remain uncertain. Using data from the Australian and New Zealand Dialysis and Transplant registry, the associations between causes of first allograft failure and acute rejection-related and non-adherence-related allograft failure following re-transplantation were examined using competing risk analyses, treating the respective alternative causes of allograft failure and death with functioning graft as competing events. Fifty-nine of 2450 patients (2%) lost their first allografts from nonadherence. Patients who lost their first kidney allograft from nonadherence were younger at the time of first kidney allograft failure but waited longer for a second allograft (>5 years: 54% vs. 20%, P < 0.001) compared with other causes. Compared with patients who lost their first allograft from causes other than nonadherence, the adjusted subdistribution hazard ratio (HR and 95% CI) for acute rejection-related second allograft failure was 0.58 (0.08, 4.07; P = 0.582) for patients with allograft failure attributed to nonadherence and was 6.30 (1.34, 29.67; P = 0.020) for non-adherence-related second allograft failure. In this cohort of transplant recipients who have received second allografts, first allograft failure secondary to nonadherence was associated with a marginally greater risk of allograft failure attributed to nonadherence in subsequent transplantation.

The association between socioeconomic disadvantage and parent-rated health in children and adolescents with chronic kidney disease-the Kids with CKD (KCAD) study.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the association of socioeconomic disadvantage and parent-rated health in children with chronic kidney disease (CKD). METHODS: A total of 377 children (aged 6-18 years) with CKD stages I-V (n = 199), on dialysis (n = 43), or with a kidney transplant (n = 135) were recruited from 2012 to 2016 in Australia and New Zealand. Associations of five socioeconomic status (SES) components and the global SES index with parent-rated health of the child were examined using adjusted logistic regression. RESULTS: The median age of participants was 12.6 years (interquartile range (IQR) 8.9-15.5). In the entire cohort, the adjusted odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for poor parent-rated health were 1.85 (1.13-3.03) for lower household income, 1.78 (1.08-2.96) for families that did not own their own home, 2.50 (1.50-4.16) for caregivers who rated their financial status as poor, 0.84 (0.51-1.38) for lower educational attainment, and 1.68 (1.04-2.72) for children whose primary caregivers were unemployed. With reference to the highest global SES index quartile, adjusted ORs for poor parent-rated health in descending order were 1.49 (0.69-3.21), 2.11 (1.06-4.20), and 2.20 (1.09-4.46), respectively. The association between low SES and poor parent-rated health was modified by CKD stage, where lower global SES index was independently associated with poor parent-rated health in children with CKD stages I-V, but not children on dialysis or with kidney transplants (p = 0.04). CONCLUSIONS: Low SES is associated with poor parent-rated health in children with CKD stages I-V, but not children on dialysis and with kidney transplants.